{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,31]],"date-time":"2026-03-31T18:29:03Z","timestamp":1774981743761,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":73,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"19","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,25]],"date-time":"2022-09-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1664064000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["42076198"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42076198"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["41906160"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41906160"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["12174312"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["12174312"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["2022KJXX-76"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022KJXX-76"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["3102021HHZY030010"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["3102021HHZY030010"]}]},{"name":"Innovation Capability Support Program of Shaanxi","award":["42076198"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42076198"]}]},{"name":"Innovation Capability Support Program of Shaanxi","award":["41906160"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41906160"]}]},{"name":"Innovation Capability Support Program of Shaanxi","award":["12174312"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["12174312"]}]},{"name":"Innovation Capability Support Program of Shaanxi","award":["2022KJXX-76"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022KJXX-76"]}]},{"name":"Innovation Capability Support Program of Shaanxi","award":["3102021HHZY030010"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["3102021HHZY030010"]}]},{"name":"Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities","award":["42076198"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42076198"]}]},{"name":"Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities","award":["41906160"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41906160"]}]},{"name":"Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities","award":["12174312"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["12174312"]}]},{"name":"Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities","award":["2022KJXX-76"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022KJXX-76"]}]},{"name":"Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities","award":["3102021HHZY030010"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["3102021HHZY030010"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The evaporation duct (ED) is generated by the evaporation of seawater and can be an influential factor of electromagnetic (EM)-wave propagation. Rainfall also affects atmospheric factors and EM-wave propagation. However, the distribution of the ED and path loss (PL) during rainfall has rarely been reported. This paper analyzes the distribution of the atmospheric factors and ED in the South China Sea (SCS). The results show that the evaporation duct height (EDH) in the area of rainfall is generally lower. The effect of the ED on the over-the-horizon (OTH) propagation reaches 0.69 dB km\u22121 on average, which is 4.3 times stronger than the maximum rain attenuation (0.16 dB km\u22121) when the rainfall is less than 5 mm h\u22121. In the SCS, a 53 km long OTH link was established between Donghai Island and Jizhao Bay to observe the PL. The measurement results show that the nearly saturated relative humidity (RH) leads to a high PL. The results also show that the change in the direction of the sea\u2013land breeze causes a 42.4 dB decrease of PL by transferring the moist patches. Rainfall has an attenuation effect on OTH propagation in ED, mainly owing to the high RH.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14194787","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,26]],"date-time":"2022-09-26T03:34:17Z","timestamp":1664163257000},"page":"4787","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":16,"title":["The Effects of Rainfall on Over-the-Horizon Propagation in the Evaporation Duct over the South China Sea"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4080-7058","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fan","family":"Yang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Marine Science and Technology, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi\u2019an 710072, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Ocean Acoustics and Sensing, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Ministry of Industry and Information Technology, Xi\u2019an 710072, China"},{"name":"Ocean Institute, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Taicang 215400, China"}]},{"given":"Kunde","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Marine Science and Technology, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi\u2019an 710072, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Ocean Acoustics and Sensing, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Ministry of Industry and Information Technology, Xi\u2019an 710072, China"},{"name":"Ocean Institute, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Taicang 215400, China"}]},{"given":"Yang","family":"Shi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Marine Science and Technology, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi\u2019an 710072, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Ocean Acoustics and Sensing, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Ministry of Industry and Information Technology, Xi\u2019an 710072, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3789-8005","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Shuwen","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Marine Science and Technology, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi\u2019an 710072, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Ocean Acoustics and Sensing, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Ministry of Industry and Information Technology, Xi\u2019an 710072, China"},{"name":"Ocean Institute, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Taicang 215400, China"}]},{"given":"Hao","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Marine Science and Technology, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi\u2019an 710072, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Ocean Acoustics and Sensing, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Ministry of Industry and Information Technology, Xi\u2019an 710072, China"}]},{"given":"Yaming","family":"Zhao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Mailbox 5111, Beijing 100094, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Babin, S.M. 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