{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,9]],"date-time":"2026-03-09T08:52:54Z","timestamp":1773046374994,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":28,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"19","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,9]],"date-time":"2022-10-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1665273600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"University of Iowa","award":["80NNSC21L1976"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["80NNSC21L1976"]}]},{"name":"University of Iowa","award":["80NSSC21K1494"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["80NSSC21K1494"]}]},{"name":"University of Iowa","award":["80NSSC21K1628"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["80NSSC21K1628"]}]},{"name":"NASA\u2019s Modeling and Analysis Program","award":["80NNSC21L1976"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["80NNSC21L1976"]}]},{"name":"NASA\u2019s Modeling and Analysis Program","award":["80NSSC21K1494"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["80NSSC21K1494"]}]},{"name":"NASA\u2019s Modeling and Analysis Program","award":["80NSSC21K1628"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["80NSSC21K1628"]}]},{"name":"NASA Earth and Space Science and Technology (FINESST) program","award":["80NNSC21L1976"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["80NNSC21L1976"]}]},{"name":"NASA Earth and Space Science and Technology (FINESST) program","award":["80NSSC21K1494"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["80NSSC21K1494"]}]},{"name":"NASA Earth and Space Science and Technology (FINESST) program","award":["80NSSC21K1628"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["80NSSC21K1628"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The severity of wildfires is increasing and has driven increases in nighttime fire activity. Enhanced capability to detect the active burning regions of wildfires at night could significantly improve the effectiveness of wildfire management operations. Potassium line emission in the NIR near 770 nm is a signature of active burning. We test the use of multi-band imaging from an aircraft at night to distinguish a wood-burning fire from artificial light sources. We find that a simple ratio of the signals in two broad bands, one including 770 nm, effectively discriminates the fire from artificial light sources. This offers the possibility of nighttime fire detection with high spatial resolution using silicon sensors sensitive in the NIR.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14195019","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,10]],"date-time":"2022-10-10T03:07:28Z","timestamp":1665371248000},"page":"5019","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["On the Potential of Flaming Hotspot Detection at Night via Multiband Visible\/Near-Infrared Imaging"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3638-0637","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Philip","family":"Kaaret","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physics & Astronomy, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA"}]},{"given":"Steve","family":"Tammes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemical & Biochemical Engineering, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7334-0490","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jun","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemical & Biochemical Engineering, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA"},{"name":"Interdisciplinary Graduate Program in Informatics, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA"}]},{"given":"Thomas","family":"Schnell","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Industrial System Engineering, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA"}]},{"given":"Marc","family":"Linderman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geographical and Sustainability Sciences, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA"}]},{"given":"Carlton H.","family":"Richey","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Industrial System Engineering, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9566-7558","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Colin M.","family":"Packard","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physics & Astronomy, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA"}]},{"given":"Meng","family":"Zhou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemical & Biochemical Engineering, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA"},{"name":"Interdisciplinary Graduate Program in Informatics, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7112-5562","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chase A.","family":"Fuller","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physics & Astronomy, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"(2022, September 10). Congressional Research Service, Wildfire Statistics. Available online: https:\/\/sgp.fas.org\/crs\/misc\/IF10244.pdf."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"442","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-021-04325-1","article-title":"Warming weakens the night-time barrier to global fire","volume":"602","author":"Balch","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112777","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2021.112777","article-title":"Large wildfire driven increases in nighttime fire activity observed across CONUS from 2003\u20132020","volume":"268","author":"Freeborn","year":"2022","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"(2022, September 10). California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection, Caldor Fire incident update for 9\/02\/2021, Available online: https:\/\/www.fire.ca.gov\/incidents\/2021\/8\/14\/caldor-fire\/updates\/353bafcd-3f3c-42f1-ad50-644a81cd1b5c\/."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1016\/0034-4257(81)90021-3","article-title":"A method for satellite identification of surface temperature fields of subpixel resolution","volume":"11","author":"Dozier","year":"1981","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112694","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2021.112694","article-title":"Satellite remote sensing of active fires: History and current status, applications and future requirements","volume":"267","author":"Wooster","year":"2021","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2013.12.008","article-title":"The New VIIRS 375m active fire detection data product: Algorithm description and initial assessment","volume":"143","author":"Schroeder","year":"2020","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"349","DOI":"10.1139\/b82-048","article-title":"Calculating and interpreting forest fire intensities","volume":"60","author":"Alexander","year":"1982","journal-title":"Can. J. Bot."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125504","DOI":"10.1088\/0957-0233\/22\/12\/125504","article-title":"Measurement of the geometric characteristics of a fire front by stereovision techniques on field experiments","volume":"2011","author":"Rossi","year":"2011","journal-title":"Meas. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111466","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2019.111466","article-title":"Detecting nighttime fire combustion phase by hybrid application of visible and infrared radiation from Suomi NPP VIIRS","volume":"237","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"3","article-title":"Smouldering combustion phenomena in science and technology","volume":"1","author":"Rein","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. Rev. Chem. Eng."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100869","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pecs.2020.100869","article-title":"Processes defining smouldering combustion: Integrated review and synthesis","volume":"81","author":"Torero","year":"2020","journal-title":"Prog. Energy Combust. Sci."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2721","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160110109633","article-title":"Remote optical detection of biomass burning using a potassium emission signature","volume":"23","author":"Vodacek","year":"2002","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Amici, S., and Piscini, A. (2021). Exploring PRISMA Scene for Fire Detection: Case Study of 2019 Bushfires in Ben Halls Gap National Park, NSW, Australia. Remote Sens., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13081410"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1016\/0034-4257(82)90057-8","article-title":"Spectral reflectance of partly transmitting leaves: Laboratory measurements and mathematical modeling","volume":"12","author":"Lillesaeter","year":"1982","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ononye, A., Vodacek, A., and Kremens, R. (2005). Fire temperature retrieval using constrained spectral unmixing and emissivity estimation. Algorithms and Technologies for Multispectral, Hyperspectral, and Ultraspectral Imagery XI, SPIE.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.603440"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1811","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2011.02.022","article-title":"Multi-resolution spectral analysis of wildfire potassium emission signatures using laboratory, airborne and spaceborne remote sensing","volume":"115","author":"Amici","year":"2011","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2946","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1617394114","article-title":"Human-started wildfires expand the fire niche across the United States","volume":"114","author":"Balch","year":"2017","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3314","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1718850115","article-title":"Rapid growth of the US wildland-urban interface raises wildfire risk","volume":"115","author":"Radeloff","year":"2018","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3961","DOI":"10.3390\/s100403961","article-title":"Spectral Identification of Lighting Type and Character","volume":"10","author":"Elvidge","year":"2010","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"110431A","article-title":"Flight hardware verification and validation of the K-line fire sensor payload on ZACube-2","volume":"11043","author":"Cogan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Proc. SPIE"},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"1003611","article-title":"Remote optical observations of actively burning biomass fires using potassium line spectral emission","volume":"10036","author":"Magidimisha","year":"2016","journal-title":"Proc. SPIE"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1914","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.10.001914","article-title":"Limitations in the Use of Dielectric Interference Filters in Wide Angle Optical Receivers","volume":"10","author":"Lerner","year":"1971","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schwind, P., and Storch, T. (2022). Georeferencing Urban Nighttime Lights Imagery Using Street Network Maps. Remote Sens., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14112671"},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"(2022, July 01). NASA Small Business Innovation Research\/Small Business Tech Transfer, Swift Ultra Long Endurance (SULE) Unmanned Air Vehicle (UAV), Phase 2E, Available online: https:\/\/techport.nasa.gov\/view\/103097."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5503","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2016.2566665","article-title":"Improving Nocturnal Fire Detection with the VIIRS Day-Night Band","volume":"9","author":"Polivka","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111433","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2019.111443","article-title":"Remote sensing of night lights: A review and an outlook for the future","volume":"237","author":"Levin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosenv.2015.11.013","article-title":"Potential application of VIIRS Day\/Night Band for monitoring nighttime surface PM2.5 air quality from space","volume":"124","author":"Wang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Atmos. Environ."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/14\/19\/5019\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T00:48:30Z","timestamp":1760143710000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/14\/19\/5019"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,9]]},"references-count":28,"journal-issue":{"issue":"19","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,10]]}},"alternative-id":["rs14195019"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs14195019","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,9]]}}}