{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,16]],"date-time":"2026-06-16T05:01:24Z","timestamp":1781586084870,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":115,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"20","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,11]],"date-time":"2022-10-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1665446400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Institut de Recherche pour le D\u00e9veloppement (IRD)","award":["823965"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["823965"]}]},{"name":"ERANET-MED 03-62 CHAAMS","award":["823965"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["823965"]}]},{"name":"H2020 RISE ACCWA","award":["823965"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["823965"]}]},{"name":"H2020 PRIMA IDEWA","award":["823965"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["823965"]}]},{"name":"Pierre et Marie Curie University or UPMC","award":["823965"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["823965"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Accurate quantification of evapotranspiration (ET) at the watershed scale remains an important research challenge for managing water resources in arid and semiarid areas. In this study, daily latent heat flux (LE) maps at the kilometer scale were derived from the two-source energy budget (TSEB) model fed by the MODIS leaf area index (LAI), land surface temperature (LST) products, and meteorological data from ERA-Interim reanalysis from 2001 to 2015 on the Tensift catchment (center of Morocco). As a preliminary step, both ERA-Interim and predicted LE at the time of the satellite overpass are evaluated in comparison to a large database of in situ meteorological measurements and eddy covariance (EC) observations, respectively. ERA-Interim compared reasonably well to in situ measurements, but a positive bias on air temperature was highlighted because meteorological stations used for the evaluation were mainly installed on irrigated fields while the grid point of ERA-Interim is representative of larger areas including bare (and hot) soil. Likewise, the predicted LE was in good agreement with the EC measurements gathered on the main crops of the region during 15 agricultural seasons with a correlation coefficient r = 0.70 and a reasonable bias of 30 W\/m2. After extrapolating the instantaneous LE estimates to ET daily values, monthly ET was then assessed in comparison to monthly irrigation water amounts provided by the local agricultural office added to CRU precipitation dataset with a reasonable agreement; the relative error was more than 89% but the correlation coefficient r reached 0.80. Seasonal and interannual evapotranspiration was analyzed in relation to local climate and land use. Lastly, the potential use for improving the early prediction of grain yield, as well as detecting newly irrigated areas for arboriculture, is also discussed. The proposed method provides a relatively simple way for obtaining spatially distributed daily estimates of ET at the watershed scale, especially for not ungauged catchments.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14205071","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,12]],"date-time":"2022-10-12T02:10:27Z","timestamp":1665540627000},"page":"5071","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["Medium-Resolution Mapping of Evapotranspiration at the Catchment Scale Based on Thermal Infrared MODIS Data and ERA-Interim Reanalysis over North Africa"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Alhousseine","family":"Diarra","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Digital 4 Research Labs (D4R), Mohammed VI Polytechnic University (UM6P), Lot 660, Hay Moulay Rachid, Ben Guerir 43150, Morocco"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6542-5793","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lionel","family":"Jarlan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre d\u2019Etudes Spatiales de la BIOsph\u00e8re (CESBIO), 31400 Toulouse, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3309-9935","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sa\u00efd","family":"Khabba","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"LMFE, Faculty of Sciences Semlalia, Cadi Ayyad University, Marrakech 40000, Morocco"},{"name":"Center for Remote Sensing Applications (CRSA), Mohammed VI Polytechnic University (UM6P), Lot 660, Hay Moulay Rachid, Ben Guerir 43150, Morocco"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0671-2418","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Michel","family":"Le Page","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre d\u2019Etudes Spatiales de la BIOsph\u00e8re (CESBIO), 31400 Toulouse, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8595-7949","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Salah","family":"Er-Raki","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Remote Sensing Applications (CRSA), Mohammed VI Polytechnic University (UM6P), Lot 660, Hay Moulay Rachid, Ben Guerir 43150, Morocco"},{"name":"ProcEDE\/AgroBiotech Center, Department of Applied Physics, Faculty of Sciences and Techniques, Cadi Ayyad University, Marrakech 40000, Morocco"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Riad","family":"Balaghi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Institute for Agronomic Research (INRA), Rabat 10000, Morocco"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Soufyane","family":"Charafi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Office R\u00e9gional de Mise en Valeur Agricole du Haouz (ORMVAH), bd Hassan II Gu\u00e9liz Marrakech, Marrakech 40000, Morocco"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0270-1690","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Abdelghani","family":"Chehbouni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Remote Sensing Applications (CRSA), Mohammed VI Polytechnic University (UM6P), Lot 660, Hay Moulay Rachid, Ben Guerir 43150, Morocco"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rafiq","family":"El Alami","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Digital 4 Research Labs (D4R), Mohammed VI Polytechnic University (UM6P), Lot 660, Hay Moulay Rachid, Ben Guerir 43150, Morocco"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103348","DOI":"10.1016\/j.earscirev.2020.103348","article-title":"Challenges for Drought Assessment in the Mediterranean Region under Future Climate Scenarios","volume":"210","author":"Tramblay","year":"2020","journal-title":"Earth-Sci. Rev."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.1016\/S0378-3774(02)00075-6","article-title":"Irrigation Management under Water Scarcity","volume":"57","author":"Pereira","year":"2002","journal-title":"Agric. Water Manag."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13005","DOI":"10.3390\/rs71013005","article-title":"Monitoring Irrigation Consumption Using High Resolution NDVI Image Time Series: Calibration and Validation in the Kairouan Plain (Tunisia)","volume":"7","author":"Saadi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"953","DOI":"10.5194\/hess-20-953-2016","article-title":"Mediterranean Irrigation under Climate Change: More Efficient Irrigation Needed to Compensate for Increases in Irrigation Water Requirements","volume":"20","author":"Fader","year":"2016","journal-title":"Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"303","article-title":"Water Resources in South Mediterranean Catchments Assessing Climatic Drivers and Impacts","volume":"2010","author":"Jarlan","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mediterr. Reg. Clim. Chang."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kuper, M., Ameur, F., and Hammani, A. (2018). Unraveling the Enduring Paradox of Increased Pressure on Groundwater through Efficient Drip Irrigation. Drip Irrigation Agriculture, Routledge.","DOI":"10.4324\/9781315537146-6"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, S., Han, Y., and Su, H. (2022). Regional Evapotranspiration Estimation by the Improved MOD16-Sm Model and Its Application in Central China. Water, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/w14091491"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2143","DOI":"10.1029\/94WR00586","article-title":"Climate, Soil Water Storage, and the Average Annual Water Balance","volume":"30","author":"Milly","year":"1994","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"899","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agwat.2010.12.015","article-title":"Evapotranspiration Information Reporting: I. Factors Governing Measurement Accuracy","volume":"98","author":"Allen","year":"2011","journal-title":"Agric. Water Manag."},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"D05109","article-title":"Crop Evapotranspiration (Guidelines for Computing Crop Water Requirements)","volume":"300","author":"Allen","year":"1998","journal-title":"Agronomy"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.1038\/nature11983","article-title":"Terrestrial Water Fluxes Dominated by Transpiration","volume":"496","author":"Jasechko","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3789","DOI":"10.5194\/hess-24-3789-2020","article-title":"Evapotranspiration Partition Using the Multiple Energy Balance Version of the ISBA-A-Gs Land Surface Model over Two Irrigated Crops in a Semi-Arid Mediterranean Region (Marrakech, Morocco)","volume":"24","author":"Aouade","year":"2020","journal-title":"Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Boulet, G., Jarlan, L., Olioso, A., and Nieto, H. (2020). Evapotranspiration in the Mediterranean Region, Elsevier Inc.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-818086-0.00002-9"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.1016\/S0168-1923(00)00123-4","article-title":"Correcting Eddy-Covariance Flux Underestimates over a Grassland","volume":"103","author":"Twine","year":"2000","journal-title":"Agric. For. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"493","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2006.10.027","article-title":"On the Application of Scintillometry over Heterogeneous Grids","volume":"334","author":"Ezzahar","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"834","DOI":"10.1002\/wat2.1168","article-title":"A Review of Remote Sensing Based Actual Evapotranspiration Estimation","volume":"3","author":"Zhang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Wiley Interdiscip. Rev. Water"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1007\/s10795-005-5186-0","article-title":"Review on Estimation of Evapotranspiration from Remote Sensing Data: From Empirical to Numerical Modeling Approaches","volume":"19","author":"Courault","year":"2005","journal-title":"Irrig. Drain. Syst."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agwat.2017.08.007","article-title":"Performance of the Two-Source Energy Budget (TSEB) Model for the Monitoring of Evapotranspiration over Irrigated Annual Crops in North Africa","volume":"193","author":"Diarra","year":"2017","journal-title":"Agric. Water Manag."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5033","DOI":"10.5194\/hess-23-5033-2019","article-title":"Ability of a Soil-Vegetation-Atmosphere Transfer Model and a Two-Source Energy Balance Model to Predict Evapotranspiration for Several Crops and Climate Conditions","volume":"23","author":"Bigeard","year":"2019","journal-title":"Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agwat.2007.10.013","article-title":"Improvement of FAO-56 Method for Olive Orchards through Sequential Assimilation of Thermal Infrared-Based Estimates of ET","volume":"95","author":"Chehbouni","year":"2008","journal-title":"Agric. Water Manag."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1109","DOI":"10.5194\/hess-14-1109-2010","article-title":"Monitoring of Water and Carbon Fluxes Using a Land Data Assimilation System: A Case Study for Southwestern France","volume":"14","author":"Albergel","year":"2010","journal-title":"Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3515","DOI":"10.5194\/hess-22-3515-2018","article-title":"ERA-5 and ERA-Interim Driven ISBA Land Surface Model Simulations: Which One Performs Better?","volume":"22","author":"Albergel","year":"2018","journal-title":"Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.5194\/hess-15-223-2011","article-title":"Mapping Daily Evapotranspiration at Field to Continental Scales Using Geostationary and Polar Orbiting Satellite Imagery","volume":"15","author":"Anderson","year":"2011","journal-title":"Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Massari, C., Modanesi, S., Dari, J., Gruber, A., De Lannoy, G.J.M., Girotto, M., Quintana-Segu\u00ed, P., Le Page, M., Jarlan, L., and Zribi, M. (2021). A Review of Irrigation Information Retrievals from Space and Their Utility for Users. Remote Sens., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13204112"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Le Page, M., Jarlan, L., El Hajj, M.M., Zribi, M., Baghdadi, N., and Boone, A. (2020). Potential for the Detection of Irrigation Events on Maize Plots Using Sentinel-1 Soil Moisture Products. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.5194\/egusphere-egu2020-8588"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ouaadi, N., Jarlan, L., Khabba, S., Ezzahar, J., Le Page, M., and Merlin, O. (2021). Irrigation Amounts and Timing Retrieval through Data Assimilation of Surface Soil Moisture into the Fao-56 Approach in the South Mediterranean Region. Remote Sens., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13142667"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"246","DOI":"10.1016\/0034-4257(94)90020-5","article-title":"Estimating Crop Water Deficit Using the Relation between Surface-Air Temperature and Spectral Vegetation Index","volume":"49","author":"Moran","year":"1994","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"421","DOI":"10.1007\/s10712-008-9037-z","article-title":"Estimating Land Surface Evaporation: A Review of Methods Using Remotely Sensed Surface Temperature Data","volume":"29","author":"Kalma","year":"2008","journal-title":"Surv. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5141","DOI":"10.1080\/01431161.2018.1471550","article-title":"Estimation of Evapotranspiration of Temperate Grassland Based on High-Resolution Thermal and Visible Range Imagery from Unmanned Aerial Systems","volume":"39","author":"Brenner","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, C., Long, D., Zhang, Y., Anderson, M.C., Kustas, W.P., and Yang, Y. (2021). A Decadal (2008\u20132017) Daily Evapotranspiration Data Set of 1 Km Spatial Resolution and Spatial Completeness across the North China Plain Using TSEB and Data Fusion. Remote Sens. Environ., 262.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2021.112519"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guzinski, R., Nieto, H., Sandholt, I., and Karamitilios, G. (2020). Modelling High-Resolution Actual Evapotranspiration through Sentinel-2 and Sentinel-3 Data Fusion. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12091433"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2500","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2010.05.025","article-title":"Disaggregation of MODIS Surface Temperature over an Agricultural Area Using a Time Series of Formosat-2 Images","volume":"114","author":"Merlin","year":"2010","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Anderson, M.C., Norman, J.M., Diak, G.R., Kustas, W.P., Mecikalski, J.R., and Anderson, M.C. (1997). A Two-Source Time-Integrated Model for Estimating Surface Fluxes Using Thermal Infrared Remote Sensing, Elsevier Science Inc.","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(96)00215-5"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.5194\/hess-6-85-2002","article-title":"Application of Simplified Surface Energy Balance Index (S-SEBI) for Crop Evapotranspiration Using Landsat 8","volume":"61","author":"Su","year":"2002","journal-title":"Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1016\/0168-1923(95)02265-Y","article-title":"Source Approach for Estimating Soil and Vegetation Energy Fluxes in Observations of Directional Radiometric Surface Temperature","volume":"77","author":"Norman","year":"1995","journal-title":"Agric. For. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"895","article-title":"Inter-Comparison of Four Remote Sensing Based Surface Energy Balance Methods Hydrology and Earth System Sciences Discussions","volume":"10","author":"Chirouze","year":"2013","journal-title":"Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci. Discuss"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.1016\/S0168-1923(99)00012-X","article-title":"Reply to Comments about the Basic Equations of Dual-Source Vegetation-Atmosphere Transfer Models","volume":"94","author":"Kustas","year":"1999","journal-title":"Agric. For. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4653","DOI":"10.5194\/hess-19-4653-2015","article-title":"The SPARSE Model for the Prediction of Water Stress and Evapotranspiration Components from Thermal Infra-Red Data and Its Evaluation over Irrigated and Rainfed Wheat","volume":"19","author":"Boulet","year":"2015","journal-title":"Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biosystemseng.2017.09.015","article-title":"Modified Penman\u2013Monteith Equation for Monitoring Evapotranspiration of Wheat Crop: Relationship between the Surface Resistance and Remotely Sensed Stress Index","volume":"164","author":"Amazirh","year":"2017","journal-title":"Biosyst. Eng."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"198","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-1694(98)00253-4","article-title":"A Remote Sensing Surface Energy Balance Algorithm for Land (SEBAL) 1. Formulation","volume":"212\u2013213","author":"Bastiaanssen","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1352","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0450(1999)038<1352:EFOCSU>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Estimating Fluxes on Continental Scales Using Remotely Sensed Data in an Atmospheric-Land Exchange Model","volume":"38","author":"Mecikalski","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"847","DOI":"10.2134\/agronj2000.925847x","article-title":"A Two-Source Energy Balance Approach Using Directional Radiometric Temperature Observations for Sparse Canopy Covered Surfaces","volume":"92","author":"Kustas","year":"2000","journal-title":"Agron. J."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"395","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)0733-9437(2007)133:4(395)","article-title":"Satellite-Based Energy Balance for Mapping Evapotranspiration with Internalized Calibration (METRIC)\u2014Applications","volume":"133","author":"Allen","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Irrig. Drain. Eng."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2015.06.020","article-title":"An Enhanced Two-Source Evapotranspiration Model for Land (ETEML): Algorithm and Evaluation","volume":"168","author":"Yang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2082","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agrformet.2009.07.002","article-title":"An Intercomparison of Three Remote Sensing-Based Surface Energy Balance Algorithms over a Corn and Soybean Production Region (Iowa, U.S.) during SMACEX","volume":"149","author":"Choi","year":"2009","journal-title":"Agric. For. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"369","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2006.11.028","article-title":"An Intercomparison of the Surface Energy Balance Algorithm for Land (SEBAL) and the Two-Source Energy Balance (TSEB) Modeling Schemes","volume":"108","author":"Timmermans","year":"2007","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Elfarkh, J., Ezzahar, J., Er-Raki, S., Simonneaux, V., Hssaine, B.A., Rachidi, S., Brut, A., Rivalland, V., Khabba, S., and Chehbouni, A. (2020). Multi-Scale Evaluation of the TSEB Model over a Complex Agricultural Landscape in Morocco. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12071181"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agrformet.2018.02.033","article-title":"Calibrating an Evapotranspiration Model Using Radiometric Surface Temperature, Vegetation Cover Fraction and near-Surface Soil Moisture Data","volume":"256\u2013257","author":"Hssaine","year":"2018","journal-title":"Agric. For. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"553","DOI":"10.1002\/qj.828","article-title":"The ERA-Interim Reanalysis: Configuration and Performance of the Data Assimilation System","volume":"137","author":"Dee","year":"2011","journal-title":"Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"471","DOI":"10.5194\/essd-9-471-2017","article-title":"Using ERA-Interim Reanalysis for Creating Datasets of Energy-Relevant Climate Variables","volume":"9","author":"Jones","year":"2017","journal-title":"Earth Syst. Sci. Data"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.1002\/qj.2317","article-title":"Estimating Low-Frequency Variability and Trends in Atmospheric Temperature Using ERA-Interim","volume":"140","author":"Simmons","year":"2014","journal-title":"Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_52","unstructured":"Szczypta, C. (2012). Hydrologie Spatiale Pour Le Suivi Des S\u00e9cheresses Du Bassin M\u00e9diterran\u00e9en. [Ph.D. Thesis, Institut National Polytechnique de Toulouse (INPT)]."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1002\/qj.776","article-title":"The Twentieth Century Reanalysis Project","volume":"137","author":"Compo","year":"2011","journal-title":"Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5161","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160802036417","article-title":"An Integrated Modelling and Remote Sensing Approach for Hydrological Study in Arid and Semi-Arid Regions: The SUDMED Programme","volume":"29","author":"Chehbouni","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4879","DOI":"10.1080\/01431161.2015.1093198","article-title":"Remote Sensing of Water Resources in Semi-Arid Mediterranean Areas: The Joint International Laboratory TREMA","volume":"36","author":"Jarlan","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agwat.2005.02.013","article-title":"Monitoring Wheat Phenology and Irrigation in Central Morocco: On the Use of Relationships between Evapotranspiration, Crops Coefficients, Leaf Area Index and Remotely-Sensed Vegetation Indices","volume":"79","author":"Duchemin","year":"2006","journal-title":"Agric. Water Manag."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5291","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160802036482","article-title":"Agrometerological Study of Semi-Ard Areas: An Experiment for Analysing the Potential of Time Series of FORMOSAT-2 Images (Tensift-Marrakech Plain)","volume":"29","author":"Duchemin","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1325","DOI":"10.1080\/01431161.2011.564220","article-title":"Automatic Unmixing of MODIS Multi-Temporal Data for Inter-Annual Monitoring of Land Use at a Regional Scale (Tensift, Morocco)","volume":"33","author":"Benhadj","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_59","first-page":"438","article-title":"Empirical Regression Models Using NDVI, Rainfall and Temperature Data for the Early Prediction of Wheat Grain Yields in Morocco","volume":"10","author":"Balaghi","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bouras, E.H., Jarlan, L., Er-Raki, S., Balaghi, R., Amazirh, A., Richard, B., and Khabba, S. (2021). Cereal Yield Forecasting with Satellite Drought-Based Indices, Weather Data and Regional Climate Indices Using Machine Learning in Morocco. Remote Sens., 13.","DOI":"10.5194\/egusphere-egu21-14590"},{"key":"ref_61","first-page":"1489","article-title":"Linkages between Common Wheat Yields and Climate in Morocco (1982-2008)","volume":"58","author":"Jarlan","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Biometeorol."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agwat.2006.02.004","article-title":"Combining FAO-56 Model and Ground-Based Remote Sensing to Estimate Water Consumptions of Wheat Crops in a Semi-Arid Region","volume":"87","author":"Chehbouni","year":"2007","journal-title":"Agric. Water Manag."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agwat.2015.09.007","article-title":"Performance Assessment of AquaCrop Model for Estimating Evapotranspiration, Soil Water Content and Grain Yield of Winter Wheat in Tensift Al Haouz (Morocco): Application to Irrigation Management","volume":"163","author":"Toumi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Agric. Water Manag."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Khabba, S., Er-raki, S., Toumi, J., Ezzahar, J., Hssaine, B.A., Le Page, M., and Chehbouni, A. (2020). Agronomy A Simple Light-Use-E Ffi Ciency Model to Estimate Wheat Yield in the Semi-Arid Areas. Agronomy, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/agronomy10101524"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agwat.2011.12.024","article-title":"Determination of Evaporation, Transpiration and Deep Percolation of Summer Corn and Winter Wheat after Irrigation","volume":"105","author":"Wang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Agric. Water Manag."},{"key":"ref_66","first-page":"2762","article-title":"Estimating Cereal Evapotranspiration Using a Simple Model Driven by Satellite Data","volume":"4","author":"Duchemin","year":"2003","journal-title":"Int. Geosci. Remote Sens. Symp."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agwat.2006.12.015","article-title":"The Use of the Scintillation Technique for Monitoring Seasonal Water Consumption of Olive Orchards in a Semi-Arid Region","volume":"89","author":"Ezzahar","year":"2007","journal-title":"Agric. Water Manag."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160701250390","article-title":"The Use of High-Resolution Image Time Series for Crop Classification and Evapotranspiration Estimate over an Irrigated Area in Central Morocco","volume":"29","author":"Simonneaux","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1533","DOI":"10.1080\/014311698215333","article-title":"The Derivation of the Green Vegetation Fraction from NOAA\/AVHRR Data for Use in Numerical Weather Prediction Models","volume":"19","author":"Gutman","year":"1998","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"826","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0450(2000)039<0826:DAEOGK>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Derivation and Evaluation of Global 1-Km Fractional Vegetation Cover Data for Land Modeling","volume":"39","author":"Zeng","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"473","DOI":"10.1175\/BAMS-D-17-0138.1","article-title":"MSWep v2 Global 3-Hourly 0.1\u00b0 Precipitation: Methodology and Quantitative Assessment","volume":"100","author":"Beck","year":"2019","journal-title":"Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jastp.2017.03.008","article-title":"On the Relationship between the QBO\/ENSO and Atmospheric Temperature Using COSMIC Radio Occultation Data","volume":"156","author":"Gao","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Solar-Terr. Phys."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brutsaert, W. (1982). Evaporation into the Atmosphere, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-94-017-1497-6"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"623","DOI":"10.1002\/joc.3711","article-title":"Updated High-Resolution Grids of Monthly Climatic Observations\u2013The CRU TS3.10 Dataset","volume":"34","author":"Harris","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124632","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2020.124632","article-title":"Inter-Comparison of ERA-5, ERA-Interim and GPCP Rainfall over the Last 40 Years: Process-Based Analysis of Systematic and Random Differences","volume":"583","author":"Nogueira","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bouras, E.H., Jarlan, L., Er-Raki, S., Albergel, C., Richard, B., Balaghi, R., and Khabba, S. (2020). Linkages between Rainfed Cereal Production and Agricultural Drought through Remote Sensing Indices and a Land Data Assimilation System: A Case Study in Morocco. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12244018"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1016\/S0168-1923(99)00005-2","article-title":"Evaluation of Soil and Vegetation Heat Flux Predictions Using a Simple Two-Source Model with Radiometric Temperatures for Partial Canopy Cover","volume":"94","author":"Kustas","year":"1999","journal-title":"Agric. For. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120","DOI":"10.1016\/j.advwatres.2012.07.005","article-title":"Evaluating the Two-Source Energy Balance Model Using Local Thermal and Surface Flux Observations in a Strongly Advective Irrigated Agricultural Area","volume":"50","author":"Kustas","year":"2012","journal-title":"Adv. Water Resour."},{"key":"ref_79","first-page":"267","article-title":"Evaporation into the Atmosphere: Theory, History, and Applications","volume":"109","author":"Brutsaert","year":"1983","journal-title":"Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Choudhury, B.J., and Monteith, J.L. (1988). A Four-Layer Model for the Heat Budget of Homogeneous Land Surfaces, Royal Meteorological Society.","DOI":"10.1256\/smsqj.48005"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0493(1972)100<0081:OTAOSH>2.3.CO;2","article-title":"On the Assessment of Surface Heat Flux and Evaporation Using Large-Scale Parameters","volume":"100","author":"Priestley","year":"1972","journal-title":"Mon. Weather Rev."},{"key":"ref_82","unstructured":"French, A.N. (2001). Scaling of Surface Energy Fluxes Unsing Remotely Sensed Data. [Ph D. Thesis, University of Maryland]."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2995","DOI":"10.5194\/hess-16-2995-2012","article-title":"Reconstruction of Temporal Variations of Evapotranspiration Using Instantaneous Estimates at the Time of Satellite Overpass","volume":"16","author":"Delogu","year":"2012","journal-title":"Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"212","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agrformet.2011.09.010","article-title":"On the Temporal Upscaling of Evapotranspiration from Instantaneous Remote Sensing Measurements to 8-Day Mean Daily-Sums","volume":"152","author":"Ryu","year":"2012","journal-title":"Agric. For. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"495","DOI":"10.2166\/wcc.2017.134","article-title":"Validation of Evapotranspiration and Its Long-Term Trends in the Yellow River Source Region","volume":"8","author":"Liu","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Water Clim. Chang."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"461","DOI":"10.1007\/s00704-015-1430-1","article-title":"Seasonal Evaluation of Evapotranspiration Fluxes from MODIS Satellite and Mesoscale Model Downscaled Global Reanalysis Datasets","volume":"124","author":"Srivastava","year":"2016","journal-title":"Theor. Appl. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"647","DOI":"10.5194\/hess-15-647-2011","article-title":"Verification of the New ECMWF ERA-Interim Reanalysis over France","volume":"15","author":"Szczypta","year":"2011","journal-title":"Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1029\/2009JD012442","article-title":"Low-Frequency Variations in Surface Atmospheric Humidity, Temperature, and Precipitation: Inferences from Reanalyses and Monthly Gridded Observational Data Sets","volume":"115","author":"Simmons","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brohan, P., Kennedy, J.J., Harris, I., Tett, S.F.B., and Jones, P.D. (2006). Uncertainty Estimates in Regional and Global Observed Temperature Changes: A New Data Set from 1850. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos., 111.","DOI":"10.1029\/2005JD006548"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5021","DOI":"10.5194\/bg-11-5021-2014","article-title":"Remotely Sensed Land-Surface Energy Fluxes at Sub-Field Scale in Heterogeneous Agricultural Landscape and Coniferous Plantation","volume":"11","author":"Guzinski","year":"2014","journal-title":"Biogeosciences"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1016\/j.proenv.2013.06.006","article-title":"Using a Diagnostic Soil-Plant-Atmosphere Model for Monitoring Drought at Field to Continental Scales","volume":"19","author":"Anderson","year":"2013","journal-title":"Procedia Environ. Sci."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1080\/11263500802710036","article-title":"Combining a Large Aperture Scintillometer and Estimates of Available Energy to Derive Evapotranspiration over Several Agricultural Fields in a Semi-Arid Region","volume":"143","author":"Ezzahar","year":"2009","journal-title":"Plant Biosyst."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1165","DOI":"10.5194\/hess-18-1165-2014","article-title":"Intercomparison of Four Remote-Sensing-Based Energy Balance Methods to Retrieve Surface Evapotranspiration and Water Stress of Irrigated Fields in Semi-Arid Climate","volume":"18","author":"Chirouze","year":"2014","journal-title":"Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"327","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2018.02.062","article-title":"Two-Source Energy Balance Modeling of Evapotranspiration in Alpine Grasslands","volume":"209","author":"Castelli","year":"2018","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"658357","DOI":"10.3389\/fpls.2021.658357","article-title":"Performance of the Two-Source Energy Balance (TSEB) Model as a Tool for Monitoring the Response of Durum Wheat to Drought by High-Throughput Field Phenotyping","volume":"12","author":"Bellvert","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Plant Sci."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biosystemseng.2017.10.017","article-title":"Evaluation and Analysis of Deep Percolation Losses of Drip Irrigated Citrus Crops under Non-Saline and Saline Conditions in a Semi-Arid Area","volume":"165","author":"Nassah","year":"2018","journal-title":"Biosyst. Eng."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2015.10.025","article-title":"Monitoring Daily Evapotranspiration over Two California Vineyards Using Landsat 8 in a Multi-Sensor Data Fusion Approach","volume":"185","author":"Semmens","year":"2016","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abtew, W., and Melesse, A. (2013). Evaporation and Evapotranspiration: Measurements and Estimations. Evaporation Evapotranspiration Measurements and Estimation, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-94-007-4737-1"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2653","DOI":"10.1002\/hyp.5779","article-title":"Estimation of Spatially Distributed Surface Energy Fluxes Using Remotely-Sensed Data for Agricultural Fields","volume":"19","author":"Melesse","year":"2005","journal-title":"Hydrol. Process."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"426","DOI":"10.2134\/agronj2008.0139s","article-title":"Aquacrop-the FAO Crop Model to Simulate Yield Response to Water: I. Concepts and Underlying Principles","volume":"101","author":"Steduto","year":"2009","journal-title":"Agron. J."},{"key":"ref_101","first-page":"273","article-title":"Water Use Efficiency and Yield of Winter Wheat under Different Irrigation Regimes in a Semi-Arid Region","volume":"02","author":"Kharrou","year":"2011","journal-title":"Agric. Sci."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155328","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2022.155328","article-title":"Multi-Decadal Analysis of Water Resources and Agricultural Change in a Mediterranean Semiarid Irrigated Piedmont under Water Scarcity and Human Interaction","volume":"834","author":"Ouassanouan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_103","unstructured":"Kharrou, H. (2014). Apport de La Teledetection Spatiale a l\u2019analyse de La Performance Des Systemes d\u2019irrigation En Zones Semi-Arides. [Ph.D. Thesis, Cadi Ayyad Univesity]."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Elwan, E., Le Page, M., Jarlan, L., Baghdadi, N., Brocca, L., Modanesi, S., Dari, J., Segui, P.Q., and Zribi, M. (2022). Irrigation Mapping on Two Contrasted Climatic Contexts Using Sentinel-1 and Sentinel-2 Data. Water, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/w14050804"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"GB1011","DOI":"10.1029\/2008GB003435","article-title":"MIRCA2000-Global Monthly Irrigated and Rainfed Crop Areas around the Year 2000: A New High-Resolution Data Set for Agricultural and Hydrological Modeling","volume":"24","author":"Portmann","year":"2010","journal-title":"Global Biogeochem. Cycles"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"198","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2009.07.031","article-title":"Quantifying Blue and Green Virtual Water Contents in Global Crop Production as Well as Potential Production Losses without Irrigation","volume":"384","author":"Siebert","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abbasi, N., Nouri, H., Didan, K., Barreto-Mu\u00f1oz, A., Borujeni, S.C., Salemi, H., Opp, C., Siebert, S., and Nagler, P. (2021). Estimating Actual Evapotranspiration over Croplands Using Vegetation Index Methods and Dynamic Harvested Area. Remote Sens., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13245167"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaridenv.2013.10.004","article-title":"Quantifying the Contributions of Agricultural Oasis Expansion, Management Practices and Climate Change to Net Primary Production and Evapotranspiration in Croplands in Arid Northwest China","volume":"100\u2013101","author":"Bai","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Arid Environ."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1999","DOI":"10.1002\/qj.3803","article-title":"The ERA5 Global Reanalysis","volume":"146","author":"Hersbach","year":"2020","journal-title":"Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4349","DOI":"10.5194\/essd-13-4349-2021","article-title":"ERA5-Land : A State-of-the-Art Global Reanalysis Dataset for Land Applications","volume":"13","author":"Dutra","year":"2021","journal-title":"Earth Syst. Sci. Data."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.1175\/2007JAMC1523.1","article-title":"Assessing Predictability of Cotton Yields in the Southeastern United States Based on Regional Atmospheric Circulation and Surface Temperatures","volume":"47","author":"Baigorria","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteorol. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.1051\/agro:19980501","article-title":"STICS: A Generic Model for the Simulation of Crops and Their Water and Nitrogen Balances. I. Theory and Parameterization Applied to Wheat and Corn","volume":"18","author":"Brisson","year":"1998","journal-title":"Agronomie"},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hansen, J.W., Jones, J.W., Irmak, A., and Royce, F. (2001). El Ni\u00f1o-Southern Oscillation Impacts on Crop Production in the Southeast United States. Impacts of El Ni\u00f1o and Climate Variability on Agriculture, Frontiers Media.","DOI":"10.2134\/asaspecpub63.ch4"},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.3354\/cr033027","article-title":"Translating Climate Forecasts into Agricultural Terms: Advances and Challenges","volume":"33","author":"Hansen","year":"2006","journal-title":"Clim. Res."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1466","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-37911-x","article-title":"Analysis and Predictability of Drought In Northwest Africa Using Optical and Microwave Satellite Remote Sensing Products","volume":"9","author":"Zribi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/14\/20\/5071\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T00:50:06Z","timestamp":1760143806000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/14\/20\/5071"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,11]]},"references-count":115,"journal-issue":{"issue":"20","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,10]]}},"alternative-id":["rs14205071"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs14205071","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,11]]}}}