{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,1]],"date-time":"2026-06-01T12:40:42Z","timestamp":1780317642701,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":54,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"20","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,16]],"date-time":"2022-10-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1665878400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["42074041"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42074041"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["41904171"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41904171"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["cstc2020jscx-msxmX0080"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["cstc2020jscx-msxmX0080"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["2022CMG02014"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022CMG02014"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["JDLHPYJD2019004"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["JDLHPYJD2019004"]}]},{"name":"Chongqing Natural Science Foundation","award":["42074041"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42074041"]}]},{"name":"Chongqing Natural Science Foundation","award":["41904171"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41904171"]}]},{"name":"Chongqing Natural Science Foundation","award":["cstc2020jscx-msxmX0080"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["cstc2020jscx-msxmX0080"]}]},{"name":"Chongqing Natural Science Foundation","award":["2022CMG02014"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022CMG02014"]}]},{"name":"Chongqing Natural Science Foundation","award":["JDLHPYJD2019004"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["JDLHPYJD2019004"]}]},{"name":"Key R&amp;D Program of Ningxia Autonomous Region: Ecological environment monitoring and platform development of ecological barrier protection system for Helan Mountain","award":["42074041"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42074041"]}]},{"name":"Key R&amp;D Program of Ningxia Autonomous Region: Ecological environment monitoring and platform development of ecological barrier protection system for Helan Mountain","award":["41904171"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41904171"]}]},{"name":"Key R&amp;D Program of Ningxia Autonomous Region: Ecological environment monitoring and platform development of ecological barrier protection system for Helan Mountain","award":["cstc2020jscx-msxmX0080"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["cstc2020jscx-msxmX0080"]}]},{"name":"Key R&amp;D Program of Ningxia Autonomous Region: Ecological environment monitoring and platform development of ecological barrier protection system for Helan Mountain","award":["2022CMG02014"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022CMG02014"]}]},{"name":"Key R&amp;D Program of Ningxia Autonomous Region: Ecological environment monitoring and platform development of ecological barrier protection system for Helan Mountain","award":["JDLHPYJD2019004"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["JDLHPYJD2019004"]}]},{"name":"Chongqing Joint Training Base for Graduate Students","award":["42074041"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42074041"]}]},{"name":"Chongqing Joint Training Base for Graduate Students","award":["41904171"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41904171"]}]},{"name":"Chongqing Joint Training Base for Graduate Students","award":["cstc2020jscx-msxmX0080"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["cstc2020jscx-msxmX0080"]}]},{"name":"Chongqing Joint Training Base for Graduate Students","award":["2022CMG02014"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022CMG02014"]}]},{"name":"Chongqing Joint Training Base for Graduate Students","award":["JDLHPYJD2019004"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["JDLHPYJD2019004"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Extreme loadings, a hostile environment and dangerous operation lead to the unsafe state of bridges under construction, especially large-span bridges. Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) tend to be the best choice for real-time deformation monitoring due to the significant advantage of automation, continuation, all-weather operation and high precision. Unfortunately, the traditional geodetic GNSS instrument with its high price and large volume is limited in its applications. Hence, we design and develop low-cost GNSS equipment by simplifying the monitoring module. The performance of the proposed solution is evaluated through an experimental dynamic scenario, proving its ability to track abrupt deformation down to 3\u20135 mm. We take Chongqing Guojiatuo Suspension Bridge in China as a case study. We build a real-time low-cost GNSS monitoring cloud platform. The low-cost bridge GNSS monitoring stations are located at the top of the south and north towers, midspan upstream and downstream respectively and the reference station is located in the stable zone 400 m away from the bridge management buildings. We conducted a detailed experimental assessment of low-cost GNSS on 5 April and a real-time deformation detection experiment of the towers and main cables during the dynamic cable saddle pushing process on 26 February 2022. In the static experiment, the standard deviation of the residual using the multi-GNSS solution is 2 mm in the horizontal direction and 5 mm in the vertical direction. The multi-GNSS solution significantly outperforms the BDS\/GPS single system. The dynamic experiment shows that, compared with the movement measured by the robotic total station, the horizontal error of the south tower and north tower measured by low-cost GNSS is below 0.005 m and 0.008 m respectively. This study highlights the potential of low-cost GNSS solutions for Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) applications.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14205174","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,17]],"date-time":"2022-10-17T03:43:58Z","timestamp":1665978238000},"page":"5174","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":23,"title":["A Novel Low-Cost GNSS Solution for the Real-Time Deformation Monitoring of Cable Saddle Pushing: A Case Study of Guojiatuo Suspension Bridge"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Lidu","family":"Zhao","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Smart City, Chongqing Jiaotong University, Chongqing 400074, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yihui","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"China State Construction Engineering Co., Ltd., Beijing 100029, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zhongfu","family":"Xiang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Civil Engineering, Chongqing Jiaotong University, Chongqing 400074, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0357-5312","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Shuangcheng","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Geological Engineering and Geomatics, Chang\u2019an University, Xi\u2019an 710054, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xinrui","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Geological Engineering and Geomatics, Chang\u2019an University, Xi\u2019an 710054, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xuqiao","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Geological Engineering and Geomatics, Chang\u2019an University, Xi\u2019an 710054, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xiaping","family":"Ma","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Geomatics, Xi\u2019an University of Science and Technology, Xi\u2019an 710054, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chuan","family":"Hu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Smart City, Chongqing Jiaotong University, Chongqing 400074, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jianping","family":"Pan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Smart City, Chongqing Jiaotong University, Chongqing 400074, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yin","family":"Zhou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Civil Engineering, Chongqing Jiaotong University, Chongqing 400074, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6165-2158","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maolin","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Smart City, Chongqing Jiaotong University, Chongqing 400074, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2026","DOI":"10.1520\/JTE20180087","article-title":"Method for structural frequency extraction from GNSS displacement monitoring signals","volume":"47","author":"Rao","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Test. Eval."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"268","DOI":"10.1080\/19479832.2021.1967468","article-title":"GNSS-aided accelerometer frequency domain integration approach to monitor structural dynamic displacements","volume":"12","author":"Liu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Image Data Fusion"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Artese, S., Achilli, V., and Zinno, R. (2018). Monitoring of bridges by a laser pointer: Dynamic measurement of support rotations and elastic line displacements: Methodology and first test. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18020338"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"469","DOI":"10.1007\/s10518-008-9067-4","article-title":"Bridge health monitoring system based on vibration measurements","volume":"7","author":"Ntotsios","year":"2009","journal-title":"Bull. Earthq. Eng."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Inaudi, D. (2009). Structural health monitoring of bridges: General issues and applications. Struct. Health Monit. Civ. Infrastruct. Syst., 339\u2013370.","DOI":"10.1533\/9781845696825.2.339"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"650","DOI":"10.1111\/mice.12765","article-title":"Mechanical state inversion method for structural performance evaluation of existing suspension bridges using 3D laser scanning","volume":"37","author":"Zhou","year":"2022","journal-title":"Comput. Aided Civ. Infrastruct. Eng."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"654","DOI":"10.1007\/s12205-018-0238-9","article-title":"Investigation of the dynamic behavior of a super high-rise structure using RTK-GNSS technique","volume":"23","author":"Xiong","year":"2019","journal-title":"KSCE J. Civ. Eng."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barzaghi, R., Cazzaniga, N.E., De Gaetani, C.I., Pinto, L., and Tornatore, V. (2018). Estimating and comparing dam deformation using classical and GNSS techniques. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints201801.0209.v1"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"432","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engstruct.2014.10.010","article-title":"Identification of dynamic displacements and model frequencies of a medium-span suspension bridge using multimode GNSS processing","volume":"81","author":"Yu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Eng. Struct."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Roberts, G.W. (1997). Real Time On-The-Fly Kinematic GPS. [Ph.D. Thesis, The University of Nottingham]."},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"105","article-title":"Deflection and frequency monitoring of the Forth Road Bridge, Scotland, by GPS. ICE Proceedings","volume":"165","author":"Roberts","year":"2012","journal-title":"Bridge Eng."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Ashkenazi, V., and Roberts, G.W. (, January November). Experimental monitoring of the Humber bridge using GPS. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers-Civil Engineering, Thomas Telford-ICE Virtual Library, London, UK."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1680\/istbu.1999.31257","article-title":"Monitoring of structures using the global positioning system","volume":"134","author":"Brown","year":"1999","journal-title":"Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng. Struct. Build."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Meng, X., Xie, Y., Bhatia, P., Sowter, A., Psimoulis, P., Colford, B., Ye, J., Skicko, M., Dimauro, M., and Ge, M. (April, January 30). Research and Development of a Pilot Project Using GNSS and Earth Observation (GeoSHM) for Structural Health Monitoring of the Forth Road Bridge in Scotland. Proceedings of the Joint International Symposium on Deformation Monitoring, Vienna, Austria."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Meng, X., Nguyen, D.T., Xie, Y., Owen, J.S., Psimoulis, P., Ince, S., Chen, Q., Ye, J., and Bhatia, P. (2018). Design and implementation of a new system for large bridge monitoring\u2014GeoSHM. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18030775"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Meng, X., Nguyen, D.T., Owen, J.S., Xie, Y., Psimoulis, P., and Ye, G. (2019). Application of GeoSHM System in Monitoring Extreme Wind Events at the Forth Road Bridge. Remote Sens., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11232799"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Msaewe, H.A., Psimoulis, P.A., Hancock, C.M., Roberts, G.W., and Bonenberg, L. (2021). Monitoring the response of Severn Suspension Bridge in the United Kingdom using multi-GNSS measurements. Struct. Control Health Monit., 28.","DOI":"10.1002\/stc.2830"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108303","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2020.108303","article-title":"Bridge monitoring using multi-GNSS observations with high cutoff elevations: A case study","volume":"168","author":"Xi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4282","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2013.08.014","article-title":"Talkha steel highway bridge monitoring and movement identification using RTK-GPS technique","volume":"46","author":"Elnabwy","year":"2013","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"389","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-8667.2008.00547.x","article-title":"Experimental assessment of the accuracy of GPS and RTS for the determination of the parameters of oscillation of major structures","volume":"23","author":"Psimoulis","year":"2008","journal-title":"Comput. Aided Civ. Infrastruct. Eng."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108677","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2020.108677","article-title":"Implementation of PPP-GNSS measurement technology in the probabilistic SHM of bridge structures","volume":"173","author":"Quintana","year":"2021","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Meng, X. (2013). From structural health monitoring to geo-hazard early warning: An integrated approach using GNSS positioning technology. Earth Observation of Global Changes (EOGC), Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-32714-8_19"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1007\/s10291-013-0322-z","article-title":"Dynamic multipath in structural bridge monitoring: An experimental approach","volume":"18","author":"Moschas","year":"2014","journal-title":"GPS Solut."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2465","DOI":"10.1109\/LAWP.2017.2724302","article-title":"A compact high-precision GNSS antenna with a miniaturized choke ring","volume":"16","author":"Liu","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Antennas Wirel. Propag. Lett."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1179\/sre.2003.37.287.2","article-title":"A mixed-mode GPS network processing approach for deformation monitoring applications","volume":"37","author":"Janssen","year":"2003","journal-title":"Surv. Rev."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2018.02.001","article-title":"Bridge monitoring using BDS-RTK and GPS-RTK techniques","volume":"120","author":"Xi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Notti, D., Cina, A., Manzino, A., Colombo, A., Bendea, I.H., Mollo, P., and Giordan, D. (2020). Low-cost GNSS solution for continuous monitoring of slope instabilities applied to Madonna Del Sasso Sanctuary (NW Italy). Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20010289"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Biagi, L., Grec, F., and Negretti, M. (2016). Low-cost GNSS receivers for local monitoring: Experimental simulation, and analysis of displacements. Sensors, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/s16122140"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"04015016","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)SU.1943-5428.0000168","article-title":"Experimental study on low-cost satellite-based geodetic monitoring over short baselines","volume":"142","author":"Caldera","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Surv. Eng."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hamza, V., Stopar, B., Ambro\u017ei\u010d, T., Turk, G., and Sterle, O. (2020). Testing Multi-Frequency Low-Cost GNSS Receivers for Geodetic Monitoring Purposes. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20164375"},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"1424","article-title":"Real-time BeiDou Landslide Monitoring Technology of Light Terminal plus Industry Cloud","volume":"48","author":"Bai","year":"2019","journal-title":"Acta Geod. Cartogr. Sin."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Prochniewicz, D., Kudrys, J., and Maciuk, K. (2022). Noises in Double-Differenced GNSS Observations. Energies, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/en15051668"},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"204","article-title":"A new approach for GNSS analysis in a multi-GNSS and multi-signal environment","volume":"1","author":"Becker","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Geod. Sci."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2674","DOI":"10.1109\/TAES.2021.3061822","article-title":"Performance analysis of the dispersion of double differences algorithm to detect single-source GNSS spoofing","volume":"57","author":"Falletti","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Aerosp. Electron. Syst."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"035007","DOI":"10.1088\/1361-6501\/ab5d87","article-title":"Real-time kinematic positioning algorithm with GNSS and high-frequency accelerometer observations for broadband signals","volume":"31","author":"Tu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Meas. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"595","DOI":"10.1080\/15732479.2020.1849320","article-title":"Performance analysis of low-cost GNSS stations for structural health monitoring of civil engineering structures","volume":"18","author":"Manzini","year":"2022","journal-title":"Struct. Infrastruct. Eng."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"146","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2017.06.026","article-title":"Structural evaluation of dynamic and semi-static displacements of the Juarez Bridge using GPS technology","volume":"110","author":"Bennett","year":"2017","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xiong, C., Lu, H., and Zhu, J. (2017). Operational modal analysis of bridge structures with data from GNSS\/accelerometer measurements. Sensors., 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/s17030436"},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"(2022, July 20). RTKLIB: An Open Source Program Package for GNSS Positioning. Available online: https:\/\/www.rtklib.com\/."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"589","DOI":"10.1007\/s001900050127","article-title":"The least-squares ambiguity decorrelation adjustment: Its performance on short GPS baselines and short observation spans","volume":"71","author":"Teunissen","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Geod."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"(2022, October 09). BeiDou Navigation Satellite System Official Document, Available online: http:\/\/en.beidou.gov.cn\/SYSTEMS\/Officialdocument\/."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"(2022, October 09). The 5th Edition of the Global Positioning System Standard Positioning Service Performance Standard, Available online: https:\/\/www.gps.gov\/technical\/ps\/2020-SPS-performance-standard.pdf."},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"113","article-title":"The evaluation of precision about Hopfield, Saastamoinen and EGNOS tropospheric delay correction model","volume":"49","author":"Qu","year":"2008","journal-title":"Acta Astron. Sin."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"433","DOI":"10.1007\/s10291-014-0403-7","article-title":"Development of an improved empirical model for slant delays in the troposphere (GPT2w)","volume":"19","author":"Schindelegger","year":"2015","journal-title":"GPS Solut."},{"key":"ref_45","first-page":"7","article-title":"Global Mapping Function (GMF): A new empirical mapping function based on numerical weather model data","volume":"33","author":"Neill","year":"2006","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)0733-9453(2003)129:4(165)","article-title":"Ionosphere-free phase combinations for modernized GPS","volume":"129","author":"Odijk","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Surv. Eng."},{"key":"ref_47","first-page":"79","article-title":"Integer aperture GNSS ambiguity resolution","volume":"38","author":"Teunissen","year":"2003","journal-title":"Artif. Satell."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"04018008","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)SU.1943-5428.0000263","article-title":"Reliable dynamic monitoring of bridges with integrated GPS and BeiDou","volume":"144","author":"Xi","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Surv. Eng."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shen, N., Chen, L., Liu, J., Wang, L., Tao, T., Wu, D., and Chen, R. (2019). A review of global navigation satellite system (GNSS)-based dynamic monitoring technologies for structural health monitoring. Remote Sens., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11091001"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stiros, S.C. (2021). GNSS (GPS) Monitoring of Dynamic Deflections of Bridges: Structural Constraints and Metrological Limitations. Infrastructures, 6.","DOI":"10.3390\/infrastructures6020023"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mohammadi, M., Rashidi, M., Mousavi, V., Karami, A., Yu, Y., and Samali, B. (2021). Quality evaluation of digital twins generated based on UAV photogrammetry and TLS: Bridge case study. Remote Sens., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13173499"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"04021101","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)BE.1943-5592.0001814","article-title":"Developing Digital Twins to Characterize Bridge Behavior Using Measurements Taken under Random Traffic","volume":"27","author":"Zhao","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Bridge Eng."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"535","DOI":"10.1007\/s10291-012-0299-z","article-title":"The ratio test for future GNSS ambiguity resolution","volume":"17","author":"Verhagen","year":"2013","journal-title":"GPS Solut."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s41445-018-0010-y","article-title":"Review of triple-frequency GNSS: Ambiguity resolution, benefits and challenges","volume":"16","author":"Li","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Glob. Position. Syst."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/14\/20\/5174\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T00:55:16Z","timestamp":1760144116000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/14\/20\/5174"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,16]]},"references-count":54,"journal-issue":{"issue":"20","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,10]]}},"alternative-id":["rs14205174"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs14205174","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,16]]}}}