{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,19]],"date-time":"2026-01-19T02:56:48Z","timestamp":1768791408853,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":43,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"20","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,17]],"date-time":"2022-10-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1665964800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["42030603"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42030603"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["42022035"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42022035"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["42205061"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42205061"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Based on the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) satellite observation and ERA5 re-analysis dataset, this paper studies the influence of the northwestward-propagating quasi-biweekly oscillation (QBWO) over the western North Pacific on cold surge rainfall (CSR) over Southeast Asia. Cold surges are the most important driver affecting Southeast Asian rainfall on a synoptic scale. The presence of the QBWO during phases 6\u20138, in which the associated active convection coupling with a cyclonic circulation reaches Southeast Asia, provides a favorable environment for the increase of CSR. The increase in CSR primarily occurs east of the Philippines, leading to a high likelihood of triggering extreme rainfall. The effects from the QBWO are independent of those from the active MJO phases over Southeast Asia. Additionally, cold surge activity could also be influenced by the QBWO. An examination of the QBWO and MJO indicates that the most preferred phases for the occurrence of cold surges are the time when phase 1 of the QBWO co-exists with phase 7 of the MJO or the time when phase 7 of the QBWO couples with phase 5 of the MJO. Accordingly, about 40% of the total cold surge days would fall in either combination.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14205200","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,18]],"date-time":"2022-10-18T00:31:01Z","timestamp":1666053061000},"page":"5200","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Impact of Quasi-Biweekly Oscillation on Southeast Asian Cold Surge Rainfall Monitored by TRMM Satellite Observation"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0354-0208","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zizhen","family":"Dong","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Atmospheric Sciences, Yunnan University, Kunming 650500, China"},{"name":"Center for Monsoon System Research, Institute of Atmospheric Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100029, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3557-1853","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lin","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Monsoon System Research, Institute of Atmospheric Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100029, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8373-3669","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ruowen","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Atmospheric Sciences, Yunnan University, Kunming 650500, China"}]},{"given":"Jie","family":"Cao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Atmospheric Sciences, Yunnan University, Kunming 650500, China"}]},{"given":"Peng","family":"Hu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Monsoon System Research, Institute of Atmospheric Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100029, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1175\/JCLI-3257.1","article-title":"Annual Cycle of Southeast Asia\u2014Maritime Continent Rainfall and the Asymmetric Monsoon Transition","volume":"18","author":"Chang","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"715","DOI":"10.1002\/joc.1428","article-title":"Seasonal march and its spatial difference of rainfall in the Philippines","volume":"27","author":"Akasaka","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int. J. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"855","DOI":"10.1007\/s00376-009-9094-3","article-title":"How well do existing indices measure the strength of the East Asian winter monsoon?","volume":"27","author":"Wang","year":"2010","journal-title":"Adv. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1175\/JCLI-D-18-0034.1","article-title":"The Northeast Winter Monsoon over the Indian Subcontinent and Southeast Asia: Evolution, Interannual Variability, and Model Simulations","volume":"32","author":"Sengupta","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"489","DOI":"10.1175\/MWR-2868.1","article-title":"Synoptic Disturbances over the Equatorial South China Sea and Western Maritime Continent during Boreal Winter","volume":"133","author":"Chang","year":"2005","journal-title":"Mon. Weather Rev."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1417","DOI":"10.1175\/JCLI-D-14-00170.1","article-title":"Development and Formation Mechanism of the Southeast Asian Winter Heavy Rainfall Events around the South China Sea. Part I: Formation and Propagation of Cold Surge Vortex","volume":"28","author":"Chen","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fauzi, R.R., and Hidayat, R. (2018). Role of cold surge and MJO on rainfall enhancement over indonesia during east asian winter monsoon. IOP Conf. Ser. Earth Environ. Sci., 149.","DOI":"10.1088\/1755-1315\/149\/1\/012045"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"662","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0493(1995)123<0662:SFOWMS>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Surface Features of Winter Monsoon Surges over South China","volume":"123","author":"Wu","year":"1995","journal-title":"Mon. Weather Rev."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.2151\/jmsj.2011-A02","article-title":"The Cross-Equatorial Northerly Surge over the Maritime Continent and Its Relationship to Precipitation Patterns","volume":"89","author":"Hattori","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Meteorol. Soc. Japan. Ser. II"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5069","DOI":"10.1175\/JCLI-D-19-0041.1","article-title":"Two Distinct Types of Extratropical Circulation Anomalies Associated with Cold Surges over the South China Sea","volume":"32","author":"Pang","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"812","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0493(1979)107<0812:NCSANE>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Northeasterly Cold Surges and Near-Equatorial Disturbances over the Winter MONEX Area during December 1974. Part I: Synoptic Aspects","volume":"107","author":"Chang","year":"1979","journal-title":"Mon. Weather Rev."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2605","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0493(1997)125<2605:CAIVOT>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Climatology and Interannual Variation of the East Asian Winter Monsoon: Results from the 1979\u201395 NCEP\/NCAR Reanalysis","volume":"125","author":"Zhang","year":"1997","journal-title":"Mon. Weather Rev."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4267","DOI":"10.1175\/JCLI-D-16-0546.1","article-title":"Impacts of Boreal Winter Monsoon Cold Surges and the Interaction with MJO on Southeast Asia Rainfall","volume":"30","author":"Lim","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tangang, F.T., Juneng, L., Salimun, E., Vinayachandran, P.N., Seng, Y.K., Reason, C.J.C., Behera, S.K., and Yasunari, T. (2008). On the roles of the northeast cold surge, the Borneo vortex, the Madden-Julian Oscillation, and the Indian Ocean Dipole during the extreme 2006\/2007 flood in southern Peninsular Malaysia. Geophys. Res. Lett., 35.","DOI":"10.1029\/2008GL033429"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Saragih, R.M., Fajarianti, R., and Winarso, P.A. (2018). Atmospheric study of the impact of Borneo vortex and Madden-Julian oscillation over Western Indonesian maritime area. J. Phys. Conf. Ser., 997.","DOI":"10.1088\/1742-6596\/997\/1\/012004"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Isnoor, K.F.N., Firdianto, P.U., and Rejeki, H.A. (2019). The activity of Borneo Vortex as a trigger for extreme rain in West Borneo (case study: 24th\u201325th January 2017). IOP Conf. Ser. Earth Environ. Sci., 303.","DOI":"10.1088\/1755-1315\/303\/1\/012061"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3292","DOI":"10.1002\/2014JD022645","article-title":"Multiscale influences on extreme winter rainfall in the Philippines","volume":"120","author":"Pullen","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2467","DOI":"10.1175\/JCLI-D-19-0048.1","article-title":"Seasonal Dependence of Cold Surges and their Interaction with the Madden\u2013Julian Oscillation over Southeast Asia","volume":"33","author":"Xavier","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01029783","article-title":"On the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM)","volume":"60","author":"Simpson","year":"1996","journal-title":"Meteorol. Atmos. Phys."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"809","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0426(1998)015<0809:TTRMMT>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"The Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) Sensor Package","volume":"15","author":"Kummerow","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"983","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0442(2002)015<0983:DVOTRR>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Diurnal Variability of Tropical Rainfall Retrieved from Combined GOES and TRMM Satellite Information","volume":"15","author":"Sorooshian","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"554","DOI":"10.1007\/s11430-011-4315-x","article-title":"Diurnal variations of summer precipitation over the Asian monsoon region as revealed by TRMM satellite data","volume":"55","author":"Mao","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sci. China Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"702","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0469(1971)028<0702:DOADOI>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Detection of a 40\u201350 Day Oscillation in the Zonal Wind in the Tropical Pacific","volume":"28","author":"Madden","year":"1971","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1109","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0469(1972)029<1109:DOGSCC>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Description of Global-Scale Circulation Cells in the Tropics with a 40\u201350 Day Period","volume":"29","author":"Madden","year":"1972","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"447","article-title":"Some simple solutions for heat-induced tropical circulation","volume":"106","author":"Gill","year":"1980","journal-title":"Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, C. (2005). Madden-Julian Oscillation. Rev. Geophys., 43.","DOI":"10.1029\/2004RG000158"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4406","DOI":"10.1002\/2014GL060241","article-title":"Influence of Madden-Julian Oscillation on Southeast Asia rainfall extremes: Observations and predictability","volume":"41","author":"Xavier","year":"2014","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1340","DOI":"10.1175\/2008JCLI2368.1","article-title":"Global Perspective of the Quasi-Biweekly Oscillation","volume":"22","author":"Kikuchi","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3956","DOI":"10.1175\/2011JCLI3916.1","article-title":"Characteristics of the Dominant Modes of Atmospheric Quasi-Biweekly Oscillation over Tropical\u2013Subtropical Americas","volume":"24","author":"Wen","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4421","DOI":"10.1002\/jgrd.50422","article-title":"Impact of the quasi-biweekly oscillation over the western North Pacific on East Asian subtropical monsoon during early summer","volume":"118","author":"Jia","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1901","DOI":"10.1175\/JCLI-D-21-0531.1","article-title":"Quasi-Biweekly Oscillation over the Western North Pacific in Boreal Winter and Its Influence on the Central North American Air Temperature","volume":"35","author":"Dong","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1965","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0450(2001)040<1965:TSOTTR>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"The Status of the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) after Two Years in Orbit","volume":"39","author":"Kummerow","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1999","DOI":"10.1002\/qj.3803","article-title":"The ERA5 global reanalysis","volume":"146","author":"Hersbach","year":"2020","journal-title":"Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1917","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0493(2004)132<1917:AARMMI>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"An All-Season Real-Time Multivariate MJO Index: Development of an Index for Monitoring and Prediction","volume":"132","author":"Wheeler","year":"2004","journal-title":"Mon. Weather Rev."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1990","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0442(1999)012<1990:TENOSD>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"The Effective Number of Spatial Degrees of Freedom of a Time-Varying Field","volume":"12","author":"Bretherton","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Moten, S., Yunus, F., Ariffin, M., Burham, N., Jeong Yik, D., Mat Adam, M.K., and Weng Sang, Y. (2014). Satistics of Northeast Monsoon Onset, Withdrawal and Cold Surges in Malaysia. Malays. Meteorol. Dept. Tech. Rep., 27, Available online: http:\/\/www.met.gov.my\/in\/web\/metmalaysia\/publications\/technicalpaper\/fullpapers\/document\/44759\/rp00_2014.pdf."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1007\/s00703-006-0236-1","article-title":"Numerical case study of an extreme rainfall event during 9\u201311 December 2004 over the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia","volume":"98","author":"Juneng","year":"2007","journal-title":"Meteorol. Atmos. Phys."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"849","DOI":"10.1175\/WAF-D-16-0160.1","article-title":"Extreme Rainstorms that Caused Devastating Flooding across the East Coast of Peninsular Malaysia during November and December 2014","volume":"32","author":"Hai","year":"2017","journal-title":"Weather Forecast."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2483","DOI":"10.1029\/2018JD029642","article-title":"The Relation of Intraseasonal Variations With Local Onset and Demise of the Indian Summer Monsoon","volume":"124","author":"Karmakar","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kiladis, G.N., Matthew, C., Wheeler, M.C., Haertel, P.T., Straub, K.H., and Roundy, P.E. (2009). Convectively coupled equatorial waves. Rev. Geophys., 47.","DOI":"10.1029\/2008RG000266"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"665","DOI":"10.1002\/qj.3699","article-title":"Linking extreme precipitation in Southeast Asia to equatorial waves","volume":"146","author":"Ferrett","year":"2020","journal-title":"Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pang, B., Lu, R., and Ling, J. (2018). Impact of cold surges on the Madden-Julian oscillation propagation over the Maritime Continent. Atmos. Sci. Lett., 19.","DOI":"10.1002\/asl.854"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2361","DOI":"10.1175\/JCLI-D-13-00086.1","article-title":"An Intensity Index for the East Asian Winter Monsoon","volume":"27","author":"Wang","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Clim."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/14\/20\/5200\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T00:56:06Z","timestamp":1760144166000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/14\/20\/5200"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,17]]},"references-count":43,"journal-issue":{"issue":"20","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,10]]}},"alternative-id":["rs14205200"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs14205200","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,17]]}}}