{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,28]],"date-time":"2026-01-28T11:31:34Z","timestamp":1769599894853,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":49,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"20","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,20]],"date-time":"2022-10-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1666224000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Civil Aerospace Technology Advance Research Project","award":["D040405"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["D040405"]}]},{"name":"Civil Aerospace Technology Advance Research Project","award":["6230111008"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["6230111008"]}]},{"name":"China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation","award":["D040405"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["D040405"]}]},{"name":"China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation","award":["6230111008"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["6230111008"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The atmospheric temperature and humidity profiles of the troposphere are generally measured by radiosondes and satellites, which are essential for analyzing and predicting weather. Nevertheless, the insufficient observation frequencies and low detection accuracy of the boundary layer restricts the description of atmospheric state changes by the temperature and humidity profiles. Therefore, this work focus on retrieving the temperature and humidity profiles using observations of the FengYun-4 (FY-4) Geostationary Interferometric Infrared Sounder (GIIRS) combined with ground-based infrared spectral observations from the Atmospheric Emitted Radiance Interferometer (AERI), which are more accurate than space-based individual retrieval results and have a wider effective retrieval range than ground-based individual retrieval results. Based on the synergistic observations, which are made by matching the space-based and ground-based data with those of different spatial and temporal resolutions, a synergistic retrieval process is proposed to obtain the temperature and humidity profiles at a high frequency under clear-sky conditions based on the optimal estimation method. In this research, using the line-by-line radiative transfer model (LBLRTM) as the forward model for observing simulations, a retrieval experiment was carried out in Qingdao, China, where an AERI is situated. Taking radiosonde data as a reference for comparing the retrieval results of the temperature and humidity profiles of the troposphere, the root-mean-square error (RMSE) of the synergistic retrieval algorithm below 400 hPa is within 2 K for temperature and within 12% for relative humidity. Compared with the GIIRS individual retrieval, the RMSE of temperature and relative humidity for the synergistic method is reduced by 0.13\u20131.5 K and 2.7\u20134.4% at 500 hPa, and 0.13\u20132.1 K and 2.5\u20137.2% at 900 hPa. Moreover, the forecast index (FI) calculated from the retrieval results shows reasonable consistency with the FIs calculated from the ERA5 reanalysis and from radiosonde data. The synergistic retrieval results have higher temporal resolution than space-based retrieval results and can reflect the changes in the atmospheric state more accurately. Overall, the results demonstrated the promising potential of the synergistic retrieval of temperature and humidity profiles at high accuracy and high temporal resolution under clear-sky conditions from FY-4\/GIIRS and AERI.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14205256","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,21]],"date-time":"2022-10-21T00:34:30Z","timestamp":1666312470000},"page":"5256","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["Synergistic Retrieval of Temperature and Humidity Profiles from Space-Based and Ground-Based Infrared Sounders Using an Optimal Estimation Method"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Huijie","family":"Zhao","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Instrumentation and Optoelectronic Engineering, Key Laboratory of Precision Opto-Mechatronics Technology, Ministry of Education, Beihang University, 37 Xueyuan Road, Haidian District, Beijing 100191, China"},{"name":"Institute of Artificial Intelligence, Beihang University, 37 Xueyuan Road, Haidian District, Beijing 100191, China"}]},{"given":"Xiaohang","family":"Ma","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Instrumentation and Optoelectronic Engineering, Key Laboratory of Precision Opto-Mechatronics Technology, Ministry of Education, Beihang University, 37 Xueyuan Road, Haidian District, Beijing 100191, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2368-0163","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Guorui","family":"Jia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Instrumentation and Optoelectronic Engineering, Key Laboratory of Precision Opto-Mechatronics Technology, Ministry of Education, Beihang University, 37 Xueyuan Road, Haidian District, Beijing 100191, China"}]},{"given":"Zhiyuan","family":"Mi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Instrumentation and Optoelectronic Engineering, Key Laboratory of Precision Opto-Mechatronics Technology, Ministry of Education, Beihang University, 37 Xueyuan Road, Haidian District, Beijing 100191, China"}]},{"given":"Huanlin","family":"Ji","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Instrumentation and Optoelectronic Engineering, Key Laboratory of Precision Opto-Mechatronics Technology, Ministry of Education, Beihang University, 37 Xueyuan Road, Haidian District, Beijing 100191, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.5194\/amt-8-315-2015","article-title":"Forecast indices from a ground-based microwave radiometer for operational meteorology","volume":"8","author":"Cimini","year":"2015","journal-title":"Atmos. Meas. Technol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"925","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0426(2001)018<0925:RSOTTS>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Remote Sensing of the Thermodynamic State of the Atmospheric Boundary Layer by Ground-Based Microwave Radiometry","volume":"18","author":"Guldner","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"776","DOI":"10.1175\/2010JAMC2441.1","article-title":"Warning Information in a Preconvection Environment from the Geostationary Advanced Infrared Sounding System\u2013A Simulation Study Using the IHOP Case","volume":"50","author":"Li","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteorol. Clim."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105472","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jastp.2020.105472","article-title":"Trends of thermodynamic indices thresholds over two tropical stations of north-east India during pre-monsoon thunderstorms","volume":"211","author":"Sahu","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sol.-Terr. Phy."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Esmaili, R.B., Smith, N., Barnet, C.D., Berndt, E.B., White, K., Dostalek, J.F., Kahn, B.H., Sjoberg, W., and Goldberg, M. (2020). Adapting satellite soundings for operational forecasting within the hazardous weather testbed. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12050886"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2094","DOI":"10.1175\/JCLI3717.1","article-title":"Biases in Stratospheric and Tropospheric Temperature Trends Derived from Historical Radiosonde Data","volume":"19","author":"Randel","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"366","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosres.2005.10.022","article-title":"Application of LPW and SAI SAFNWC\/MSG satellite products in pre-convective environments","volume":"83","author":"Martinez","year":"2007","journal-title":"Atmos. Res."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"393","DOI":"10.1029\/97RS03656","article-title":"Radiometrie profiling of temperature, water vapor and cloud liquid water using various inversion methods","volume":"33","author":"Solheim","year":"1998","journal-title":"Radio Sci."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1499","DOI":"10.1175\/JAMC-D-16-0267.1","article-title":"Comparison of Satellite-, Model-, and Radiosonde-Derived Convective Available Potential Energy in the Southern Great Plains Region","volume":"56","author":"Gartzke","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteorol. Clim."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Van Allen, J.A. (1958). The Radiative Heat Transfer of Planet Earth, Scientific Uses of Earth Satellites."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1004","DOI":"10.1364\/JOSA.49.001004","article-title":"Inference of Atmospheric Structure from Remote Radiation Measurements","volume":"49","author":"Kaplan","year":"1959","journal-title":"J. Opt. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1127","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0469(1976)033<1127:TUOEOS>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"The Use of Eigenvectors of Statistical Covariance Matrices for Interpreting Satellite Sounding Radiometer Observations","volume":"33","author":"Smith","year":"1976","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2019.10.002","article-title":"Statistical retrieval of atmospheric profiles with deep convolutional neural networks","volume":"158","author":"Laparra","year":"2019","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"960","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0469(1970)027<0960:IPIRTD>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Inverse Problems in Radiative Transfer: Determination of Atmospheric Parameters","volume":"27","author":"Chahine","year":"1970","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7415","DOI":"10.1002\/2016JD024808","article-title":"A 1DVAR retrieval applied to GMI: Algorithm description, validation, and sensitivities","volume":"121","author":"Duncan","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1993","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.9.001993","article-title":"Iterative solution of the radiative transfer equation for the temperature and absorbing gas profile of an atmosphere","volume":"9","author":"Smith","year":"1970","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1248","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0450(2000)039<1248:GSOTAF>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Global Soundings of the Atmosphere from ATOVS Measurements: The Algorithm and Validation","volume":"39","author":"Li","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"583","DOI":"10.1175\/BAMS-D-16-0293.1","article-title":"Satellite-Based Atmospheric Infrared Sounder Development and Applications","volume":"99","author":"Menzel","year":"2018","journal-title":"Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2002.808356","article-title":"AIRS\/AMSU\/HSB on the Aqua mission: Design, science objectives, data products, and processing systems","volume":"41","author":"Aumann","year":"2003","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"647","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02918708","article-title":"Atmospheric Profile Retrieval with AIRS Data and Validation at the ARM CART Site","volume":"22","author":"Wu","year":"2005","journal-title":"Adv. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2241","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-9-2241-2009","article-title":"All weather IASI single field-of-view retrievals: Case study\u2013validation with JAIVEx data","volume":"9","author":"Zhou","year":"2009","journal-title":"Atmos. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhu, L., Bao, Y., Wu, Y., Xu, D., Petropoulos, G.P., Zhang, P., Lu, F., and Lu, Q. (2020). Temperature and humidity profiles retrieval in a plain area from fengyun-3D\/HIRAS sensor using a 1D-VAR assimilation scheme. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12030435"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2021GL093672","DOI":"10.1029\/2021GL093672","article-title":"Impact of High Temporal Resolution FY-4A Geostationary Interferometric Infrared Sounder (GIIRS) Radiance Measurements on Typhoon Forecasts: Maria (2018) Case with GRAPES Global 4D-Var Assimilation System","volume":"48","author":"Yin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"471","DOI":"10.1007\/s00376-021-1032-z","article-title":"One-Dimensional Variational Retrieval of Temperature and Humidity Profiles from the FY4A GIIRS","volume":"39","author":"Xue","year":"2022","journal-title":"Adv. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1777","DOI":"10.1175\/JTECH-1663.1","article-title":"Atmospheric Emitted Radiance Interferometer. Part II: Instrument Performance","volume":"21","author":"Knuteson","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1763","DOI":"10.1175\/JTECH-1662.1","article-title":"Atmospheric Emitted Radiance Interferometer. Part I: Instrument Design","volume":"21","author":"Knuteson","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Clive, D.R. (2000). Inverse Methods for Atmospheric Sounding: Theory and Practice, World Scientific."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"752","DOI":"10.1175\/JAMC-D-13-0126.1","article-title":"Information Content and Uncertainties in Thermodynamic Profiles and Liquid Cloud Properties Retrieved from the Ground-Based Atmospheric Emitted Radiance Interferometer (AERI)","volume":"53","author":"Turner","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteorol. Clim."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"681","DOI":"10.1007\/s00703-018-0588-3","article-title":"An improvement of the retrieval of temperature and relative humidity profiles from a combination of active and passive remote sensing","volume":"131","author":"Che","year":"2019","journal-title":"Meteorol. Atmos. Phys."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1339","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTARS.2018.2874968","article-title":"Improvements to the AERIoe Thermodynamic Profile Retrieval Algorithm","volume":"12","author":"Turner","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Appl. Earth Obs. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4057","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.41.004057","article-title":"Retrieval of atmospheric-temperature and water-vapor profiles by use of combined satellite and ground-based infrared spectral-radiance measurements","volume":"41","author":"Ho","year":"2002","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6940","DOI":"10.1002\/jgrd.50548","article-title":"Combining ground-based with satellite-based measurements in the atmospheric state retrieval: Assessment of the information content","volume":"118","author":"Ebell","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1153","DOI":"10.1175\/JAMC-D-19-0169.1","article-title":"Synergy of Satellite- and Ground-Based Observations for Continuous Monitoring of Atmospheric Stability, Liquid Water Path, and Integrated Water Vapor: Theoretical Evaluations Using Reanalysis and Neural Networks","volume":"59","author":"Maria","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteorol. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"771","DOI":"10.1175\/JTECH-D-21-0119.1","article-title":"Information Content of a Synergy of Ground-Based and Space-Based Infrared Sounders. Part I: Clear-Sky Environments","volume":"39","author":"Loveless","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2051","DOI":"10.1175\/JTECH-D-19-0170.1","article-title":"A 1D Var Retrieval of Relative Humidity Using the ERA5 Dataset for the Assimilation of Raman Lidar Measurements","volume":"37","author":"Gamage","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol."},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"1","article-title":"Radiosonde comparison of ERA5 and ERA-Interim reanalysis datasets over tropical oceans","volume":"73","author":"Meri","year":"2021","journal-title":"Tellus Ser. A Dyn. Meteorol. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"168","DOI":"10.1134\/S1024856022020105","article-title":"Statistical Analysis of the Water Vapor Content in North Caucasus and Crimea","volume":"35","author":"Shikhovtsev","year":"2022","journal-title":"Atmos. Ocean. Opt."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E1069-91","DOI":"10.1175\/BAMS-D-18-0278.1","article-title":"The Atmospheric Radiation Measurement (ARM) West Antarctic Radiation Experiment","volume":"101","author":"Lubin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1301","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0477(2000)081<1301:CWBPFO>2.3.CO;2","article-title":"Continuous Water Vapor Profiles from Operational Ground-Based Active and Passive Remote Sensors","volume":"81","author":"Turner","year":"2000","journal-title":"Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1637","DOI":"10.1175\/BAMS-D-16-0065.1","article-title":"Introducing the New Generation of Chinese Geostationary Weather Satellites, Fengyun-4","volume":"98","author":"Yang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"648","article-title":"Post-launch calibration and validation of the Geostationary Interferometric Infrared Sounder (GIIRS) on FY-4A","volume":"38","author":"Feng","year":"2019","journal-title":"Hongwai Yu Haomibo Xuebao\/J. Infrared Millim. Waves"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1999","DOI":"10.1002\/qj.3803","article-title":"The ERA5 global reanalysis","volume":"146","author":"Hersbach","year":"2020","journal-title":"Q. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7397","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-9-7397-2009","article-title":"Performance of the line-by-line radiative transfer model (LBLRTM) for temperature and species retrievals: IASI case studies from JAIVEx","volume":"9","author":"Shephard","year":"2009","journal-title":"Atmos. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2601","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.50.002601","article-title":"Cloud detection performance of spaceborne visible-to-infrared multispectral imagers","volume":"50","author":"Nakajima","year":"2011","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1002\/qj.909","article-title":"Inversion for atmospheric thermodynamical parameters of IASI data in the principal components space","volume":"138","author":"Masiello","year":"2012","journal-title":"Q. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1083","DOI":"10.1175\/JTECH-D-16-0186.1","article-title":"Improved AIRS Temperature and Moisture Soundings with Local A Priori Information for the 1DVAR Method","volume":"34","author":"Jang","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1016\/S0169-8095(03)00056-5","article-title":"Thunderstorm predictors and their forecast skill for the Netherlands","volume":"67","author":"Haklander","year":"2003","journal-title":"Atmos. Res."},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"Miller, R.C. (1975). Notes on Analysis and Severe-Storm Forecasting Procedures of the Air Force Global Weather Central, AWS."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"528","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0477-37.10.528","article-title":"The Lifted Index as a Predictor of Latent Instability","volume":"37","author":"Galway","year":"1956","journal-title":"Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/14\/20\/5256\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T00:58:23Z","timestamp":1760144303000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/14\/20\/5256"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,20]]},"references-count":49,"journal-issue":{"issue":"20","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,10]]}},"alternative-id":["rs14205256"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs14205256","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,20]]}}}