{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,24]],"date-time":"2026-02-24T21:22:14Z","timestamp":1771968134572,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":54,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"21","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,25]],"date-time":"2022-10-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1666656000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Anisotropic reflectance correction (ARC) of satellite imagery is required to remove multi-scale topographic effects in imagery. Commonly utilized ARC approaches have not effectively accounted for atmosphere-topographic coupling. Furthermore, it is not clear which topographic effects need to be formally accounted for. Consequently, we simulate the direct and diffuse-skylight irradiance components and formally account for multi-scale topographic effects. A sensitivity analysis was used to determine if characterization schemes can account for a collective treatment of effects, using our parameterization scheme as a basis for comparison. We found that commonly used assumptions could not account for topographic modulation in our simulations. We also found that the use of isotropic diffuse irradiance and a topographic shielding parameter also failed to characterize topographic modulation. Our results reveal that topographic effects govern irradiance variations in a synergistic way, and that issues of ARC need to be formally addressed given atmosphere-topography coupling. Collectively, our results suggest that empirical ARC methods cannot be used to effectively address topographic effects, given inadequate parameterization schemes. Characterizing and removing spectral variation from multispectral imagery will most likely require numerical modeling efforts. More research is warranted to develop\/evaluate parameterization schemes that better characterize the anisotropic nature of atmosphere-topography coupling.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14215339","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,26]],"date-time":"2022-10-26T07:17:48Z","timestamp":1666768668000},"page":"5339","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Numerical Modeling and Parameter Sensitivity Analysis for Understanding Scale-Dependent Topographic Effects Governing Anisotropic Reflectance Correction of Satellite Imagery"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0298-6665","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Michael P.","family":"Bishop","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geography, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3838-7290","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Brennan W.","family":"Young","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geology and Geophysics, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5633-9992","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jeffrey D.","family":"Colby","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geography and Planning, Appalachian State University, Boone, NC 28608, USA"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.1016\/j.quascirev.2016.09.026","article-title":"Using natural archives to detect climate and environmental tipping points in the Earth System","volume":"152","author":"Thomas","year":"2016","journal-title":"Quat. Sci. Rev."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1007\/s10584-019-02520-8","article-title":"Uncertainty in geomorphological responses to climate change","volume":"156","author":"Harrison","year":"2019","journal-title":"Climactic Chang."},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"1794","article-title":"Climate change and ecosystems: Threats, opportunities and solutions","volume":"375","author":"Malhi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"819","DOI":"10.5194\/esd-12-819-2021","article-title":"Abrupt climate change as a rate-dependent cascading tipping point","volume":"12","author":"Lohmann","year":"2021","journal-title":"Earth Syst. Dyn."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1635","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-81212-9","article-title":"Increase in occurrence of large glacier-related landslides in the high mountains of Asia","volume":"11","author":"Liu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Quattrochi, D., Wentz, E.A., Lam, N.S., and Emerson, C.W. (2017). Geomorphometry and Mountain Geodynamics: Issues of Scale and Complexity. Integrating Scale in Remote Sensing and GIS, CRC Press. Chapter 7.","DOI":"10.1201\/9781315373720"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bishop, M.P., and Giardino, J.R. (2022). Issues in Climate Analysis and Modeling for Understanding Mountain Erosion Dynamics. Technology-Driven Geomorphology: Geospatial Data Science, Elsevier Publishing Inc.. [2nd ed.]. Treatise in Geomorphology.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-818234-5.00022-5"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4004","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.37.004004","article-title":"Correction of satellite imagery over mountainous terrain","volume":"37","author":"Richter","year":"1998","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"3110907","article-title":"Evaualtion of topographic correction models based upon 3-D Radiative Transfer Simulation","volume":"19","author":"Chi","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103561","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coldregions.2022.103561","article-title":"Effect of Shadow on Atmospheric and Topographic Processed NDSI Values in Chenab Basin, western Himalayas","volume":"199","author":"Jasrotia","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cold Reg. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bishop, M.P., Young, B.W., Colby, J.D., Furfaro, R., and Chi, Z. (2019). Theoretical Evaluation of Anisotropic Reflectance Correction Approaches for Addressing Multi-Scale Topographic Effects on the Radiation Transfer Cascade in Mountain Environments. Remote Sens., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11232728"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1016\/S0960-1481(99)00086-5","article-title":"A new Approach to Estimating the Diffuse Irradiance on Inclined Surfaces","volume":"20","author":"Vartiainen","year":"2000","journal-title":"Renew. Energy"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jia, W., Pang, Y., Tortini, R., Schl\u00e4pfer, D., Li, Z., and Roujean, J.L. (2020). A Kernel-Driven BRDF Approach to Correct Airborne Hyperspectral Imagery over Forested Areas with Rugged Topography. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12030432"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2020JD034294","DOI":"10.1029\/2020JD034294","article-title":"Quantitative Analysis of Terrain Reflected Solar Radiation in Snow-Covered Mountains: A Case Study in Southeastern Tibetan Plateau","volume":"126","author":"Chu","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"772","DOI":"10.1080\/00045608.2010.500521","article-title":"Climate Change and Mountain Topographic Evolution in the Central Karakoram, Pakistan","volume":"100","author":"Bishop","year":"2010","journal-title":"Ann. Assoc. Am. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107840","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2021.107840","article-title":"Modeling the Feedbacks between Surface Ablation and Morphological Variations on Debris-Covered Baltoro Glacier in the central Karakoram","volume":"389","author":"Huo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"1183","article-title":"The Lambertian Assumption and LANDSAT Data","volume":"46","author":"Smith","year":"1980","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1080\/07038992.1982.10855028","article-title":"On the Slope-Aspect Correction of Multispectral Scanner Data","volume":"8","author":"Teillet","year":"1982","journal-title":"Can. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"166","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(97)00177-6","article-title":"Topographic Normalization of Landsat TM Images of Forest Based on Subpixel Sun\u2013Canopy\u2013Sensor Geometry","volume":"64","author":"Gu","year":"1998","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2148","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2005.852480","article-title":"SCS+C: A modified Sun-canopy-sensor topographic correction in forested terrain","volume":"43","author":"Soenen","year":"2005","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cameron, M., and Kumar, L. (2018). Diffuse Skylight as a Surrogate for Shadow Detection in High-Resolution Imagery Acquired Under Clear Sky Conditions. Remote Sens., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10081185"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"481","DOI":"10.1016\/0038-092X(86)90013-7","article-title":"An anisotropic hourly diffuse radiation model for sloping surfaces: Description, performance validation, site dependency evaluation","volume":"36","author":"Perez","year":"1986","journal-title":"Sol. Energy"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1016\/0034-4257(89)90044-8","article-title":"Evaluation of topographic effects in remotely sensed data","volume":"30","author":"Proy","year":"1989","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1016\/0038-092X(90)90055-H","article-title":"Modeling daylight availability and irradiance components from direct and global irradiance","volume":"44","author":"Perez","year":"1990","journal-title":"Sol. Energy"},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Gueymard, C. (1995). SMARTS2, a Simple Model of the Atmospheric Radiative Transfer of Sunshine: Algorithms and Performance Assessment, Florida Solar Energy Center."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6558","DOI":"10.3390\/rs70606558","article-title":"Improved Topographic Normalization for Landsat TM Images by Introducing the MODIS Surface BRDF","volume":"7","author":"Zhang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"963","DOI":"10.1109\/36.58986","article-title":"Rapic Calculation of Terrain Parameters for Radiation from Digital Elevation Models","volume":"28","author":"Dozier","year":"1990","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3503","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160210154029","article-title":"COrrecting Satellite Imagery for the Variance of Reflectance and Illumination with Topography","volume":"24","author":"Shepard","year":"2003","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5623","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160802082148","article-title":"Reduction in Atmospheric and Topographic Effect on Landsat TM Data for Forect CLassification","volume":"29","author":"Hung","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wen, J., Liu, Q., Xiao, Q., Liu, Q., You, D., Hao, D., Wu, S., and Lin, X. (2018). Characterizing Land Surface Anisotropic Reflectance over Rugged Terrain: A Review of Concepts and Recent Developments. Remote Sens., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10030370"},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"531","article-title":"Topographic normalization in rugged terrain","volume":"57","author":"Colby","year":"1991","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bishop, M.P., and Colby, J.D. (2011). Topographic normalization of multispectral satellite imagery. Encyclopedia of Snow, Ice and Glaciers, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-90-481-2642-2_664"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"756","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2012.06.018","article-title":"A physics-based atmospheric and BRDF correction for Landsat data over mountainous terrain","volume":"124","author":"Li","year":"2012","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Khan, M.A., Treloar, P.J., Searle, M.P., and Jan, M.Q. (2000). Unroofing of the Nanga Parbat Himalaya. Tectonics of the Nanga Parbat Syntaxis and the Western Himalaya, The Geological Society of London. Number 170 in Special Publication.","DOI":"10.1144\/GSL.SP.2000.170.01.01"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"712","DOI":"10.1029\/2000TC001243","article-title":"Crustal Reworking at Nanga Parbat, Pakistan: Metamorphic Consequences of Thermal-Mechanical Coupling Facilitated by Erosion","volume":"20","author":"Zeitler","year":"2001","journal-title":"Tectonics"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.1016\/S0921-8181(02)00073-5","article-title":"Geomorphic Change in High Mountains: A Western Himalayan Perspective","volume":"32","author":"Bishop","year":"2002","journal-title":"Glob. Planet. Chang."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"999","DOI":"10.1130\/0091-7613(1999)027<0999:TONPWH>2.3.CO;2","article-title":"Tectonics of Nanga Parbat, western Himalaya: Synkinematic plutonism within the doubly vergent shear zones of a crustal-scale pop-up structure","volume":"27","author":"Schneider","year":"1999","journal-title":"Geology"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1016\/S1040-6182(99)00037-3","article-title":"The Quaternary glacial history of Nanga Parbat","volume":"65\u201366","author":"Owen","year":"2000","journal-title":"Quat. Int."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"NASA\/METI\/AIST\/Japan Spacesystems, and U.S.\/Japan ASTER Science Team (2009). ASTER GDEM Version 2."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2362","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0469(1978)035<2362:LTVODI>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Long-Term Variations of Daily Insolation and Quaternary Climatic Changes","volume":"35","author":"Berger","year":"1978","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3865","DOI":"10.1093\/mnras\/sty3391","article-title":"On the importance of astronomical refraction for modern solar astrometric measurements","volume":"483","author":"Corbard","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"United Kingdom Hydrographic Office (2012). The Astronomical Almanac for the Year 2013."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0450(1986)025<0087:SSSMFD>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Simple Solar Spectral Model for Direct and Diffuse Irradiance on Horizontal and Tilted Planes at the Earth\u2019s Surface for Cloudless Atmospheres","volume":"25","author":"Bird","year":"1986","journal-title":"J. Clim. Appl. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1016\/0098-3004(81)90026-1","article-title":"A faster solution to the horizon problem","volume":"7","author":"Dozier","year":"1981","journal-title":"Comput. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1016\/0034-4257(94)90057-4","article-title":"Kriging in the shadows: Geostatistical interpolation for remote sensing","volume":"49","author":"Rossi","year":"1994","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_46","first-page":"833","article-title":"Remote sensing and cast shadows in mountainous terrain","volume":"67","author":"Giles","year":"2001","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"A64","DOI":"10.1051\/0004-6361\/201732159","article-title":"Solar radius determined from PICARD\/SODISM observations and extremely weak wavelength dependence in the visible and the near-infrared","volume":"616","author":"Meftah","year":"2018","journal-title":"Astron. Astrophys."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1016\/S0038-092X(87)80031-2","article-title":"A New Simplified Version of the Perez DIffuse Irradiance MOdel for Tilted Surfaces","volume":"39","author":"Perez","year":"1987","journal-title":"Sol. Energy"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Maleki, S.A.M., Hizam, H., and Gomes, C. (2017). Estimation of Hourly, Daily and Monthly Global Solar Radiation on Inclined Surfaces: Models Re-Visited. Energies, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/en10010134"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tian, Z., Perers, B., Furbo, S., Fan, J., Deng, J., and Dragsted, J. (2018). A Comprehensive Approach for Modelling Horizontal Diffuse Radiation, Direct Normal Irradiance and Total Tilted Solar Radiation Based on Global Radiation under Danish Climate Conditions. Energies, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/en11051315"},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"Darlu, S., and Kittler, R. (2002, January 12\u201313). CIE Gneral sky standard Defining Luminaance Distributions. Proceedings of the Canadian Conference on Building Energy, Montreal, QC, Canada."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"600","DOI":"10.1109\/TIP.2003.819861","article-title":"Image quality assessment: From error measurement to structural similarity","volume":"13","author":"Wang","year":"2004","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Image Process."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pimple, U., Sitthi, A., Simonetti, D., Pungkul, S., Leadprathom, K., and Chidthaisong, A. (2017). Topographic Correction of Landsat TM-5 and Landsat OLI-8 Imagery to Improve Performance of Forest CLassification in the Mountainous Terrain of Northeast Thailand. Sustainability, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/su9020258"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fan, W., Li, J., Liu, Q., Zhang, Q., Yin, G., Li, A., Zeng, Y., Xu, B., Xu, X., and Zhou, G. (2018). Topographic Correction of Forest Image Data Based on the Canopy Reflectance Model for Sloping Terrains in Multiple Forward Mode. Remote Sens., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10050717"}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/14\/21\/5339\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T01:02:32Z","timestamp":1760144552000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/14\/21\/5339"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,25]]},"references-count":54,"journal-issue":{"issue":"21","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,11]]}},"alternative-id":["rs14215339"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs14215339","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,25]]}}}