{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,24]],"date-time":"2026-03-24T06:03:51Z","timestamp":1774332231330,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":52,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"23","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,23]],"date-time":"2022-11-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1669161600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["41661088"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41661088"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["21GZZD39"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["21GZZD39"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2016-5674"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2016-5674"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Program in Guizhou Planning of Philosophy and Social Science","award":["41661088"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41661088"]}]},{"name":"Program in Guizhou Planning of Philosophy and Social Science","award":["21GZZD39"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["21GZZD39"]}]},{"name":"Program in Guizhou Planning of Philosophy and Social Science","award":["2016-5674"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2016-5674"]}]},{"name":"High-level Innovative Talents Training Program in Guizhou Province","award":["41661088"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41661088"]}]},{"name":"High-level Innovative Talents Training Program in Guizhou Province","award":["21GZZD39"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["21GZZD39"]}]},{"name":"High-level Innovative Talents Training Program in Guizhou Province","award":["2016-5674"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2016-5674"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>During the 13th Five-Year Plan period (2015\u20132020), the Poverty alleviation relocation (PAR), led by the Chinese government in the karst regions of southwest China, aimed to cope with poverty and ameliorate the ecological environment. Nevertheless, few research results have involved quantitative assessment of the ecological effectiveness of PAR. Moreover, few studies on the ecological effects of migration relocation have distinguished the effects of relocation on climatic factors and other ecological restoration projects concerning the ecological environment. It remains unclear to what extent PAR affects the regional ecological environment. In order to quantitatively assess the extent of PAR\u2019s ecological restoration contribution, we adopted the Remote Sensing Ecological Index (RSEI) model, which integrates the four more intuitive and critical influencing factors of greenness, moisture, dryness, and heat. On the Google earth engine (GEE) platform, utilizing its powerful remote sensing data storage capacity and computational capability, we quantitatively assessed the spatial and temporal distribution characteristics of ecological environmental quality (EEQ). As revealed by our research findings, overall EEQ showed a fluctuating upward trend over the period 1996\u20132021 in the study area, exhibiting an improvement of 22.66%. Mann\u2013Kendall mutation test curves showed the most significant improvement occurred after 2015, with an improvement of 8.06%. Based on the residual analysis model, in order to remove the influence of climatic factors and other anthropogenic activities, and to assess the driving effectiveness of PAR, PAR was remarkedly effective in ameliorating EEQ, causing the RSEI to improve by 0.0221\u20130.0422. The LISA correlation model further analyzed that 44.91% of regional PAR implementation exerted a remarkable influence on RSEI change, of which 54.59% belonged to positive correlation. Aside from that, we also found that not all areas involved in PAR experienced ameliorated RSEI. In the western region, where the human\u2013land conflict is prominent and the ecology is more fragile, PAR exhibited a significant effect in ameliorating EEQ, but in the eastern region, where the EEQ foundation is better, PAR did not show significant effect, and, thus, the ecological restoration effect of PAR exhibited noticeable geographical suitability.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14235920","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,24]],"date-time":"2022-11-24T02:54:05Z","timestamp":1669258445000},"page":"5920","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":20,"title":["Quantifying the Ecological Effectiveness of Poverty Alleviation Relocation in Karst Areas"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Qing","family":"Feng","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Karst Science, Guizhou Normal University, Guiyang 550001, China"},{"name":"College of Tourism & Aviation Culture, Guizhou City Vocational College, Guiyang 550046, China"},{"name":"National Engineering Research Center for Karst Rocky Desertifification Control, Guiyang 550001, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Zhongfa","family":"Zhou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Karst Science, Guizhou Normal University, Guiyang 550001, China"},{"name":"National Engineering Research Center for Karst Rocky Desertifification Control, Guiyang 550001, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Changli","family":"Zhu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Karst Science, Guizhou Normal University, Guiyang 550001, China"},{"name":"National Engineering Research Center for Karst Rocky Desertifification Control, Guiyang 550001, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Wanlin","family":"Luo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Engineering Branch of the Third Institute of Surveying and Mapping of Guizhou Province, Guiyang 550001, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1354-1004","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lu","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Karst Science, Guizhou Normal University, Guiyang 550001, China"},{"name":"National Engineering Research Center for Karst Rocky Desertifification Control, Guiyang 550001, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"515","article-title":"On Asia biodiversity conservation and database network","volume":"21","author":"Ma","year":"2013","journal-title":"Biodivers. Sci."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"326","DOI":"10.1038\/329326a0","article-title":"Large-scale biogeographical patterns of species richness of trees","volume":"6137","author":"Currie","year":"1987","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"502","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1523-1739.1998.012003502.x","article-title":"The Global 200: A Representation Approach to Conserving the Earth\u2019s Most Biologically Valuable Ecoregions","volume":"12","author":"Olson","year":"1998","journal-title":"Conserv. Biol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1111\/ele.12050","article-title":"Ecological effects of environmental change","volume":"16","author":"Luque","year":"2013","journal-title":"Ecol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2743","DOI":"10.1007\/s10980-019-00912-w","article-title":"Karst landscapes of China: Patterns, ecosystem processes and services","volume":"34","author":"Wang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Landsc. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Sweeting, M.M. (2012). Karst in China: Its Geomorphology and Environment, Springer."},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"81","article-title":"The trajectory of the Anthropocene: The Great Acceleration","volume":"2","author":"Steffen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Anthr. Rev."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.earscirev.2014.01.005","article-title":"Rocky desertification in Southwest China: Impacts, causes, and restoration","volume":"132","author":"Jiang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Earth-Sci. Rev."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102135","DOI":"10.1016\/j.habitatint.2020.102135","article-title":"China\u2019s poverty alleviation resettlement: Progress, problems and solutions","volume":"98","author":"Yang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Habitat Int."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"National Development and Reform Commission (2021). The 13th Five-Year Plan for China\u2019s Poverty Alleviation Resettlement: Great Achievements and Practical Experience Macroeconomic Management, National Development and Reform Commission."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1185","DOI":"10.1007\/s13157-015-0705-8","article-title":"Health Assessment of Wetland Ecosystems in the Heilongjiang River Basin, China","volume":"35","author":"Jia","year":"2015","journal-title":"Wetlands"},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"97","article-title":"Man-earth areal system\u2014The core of geographical study\u2014On the geographical thoughts and academic contributions of academician Wu Chuanjun","volume":"53","author":"Lu","year":"1998","journal-title":"Acta Geogr. Sin."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1500965","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.1500965","article-title":"Effects of conservation policy on China\u2019s forest recovery","volume":"2","author":"Vina","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Adv."},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"1","article-title":"Economic growth and income inequality","volume":"45","author":"Kuznets","year":"1955","journal-title":"Am. Econ. Rev."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.4054\/DemRes.2020.43.10","article-title":"The long-run effects of poverty alleviation resettlement on child development: Evidence from a quasi-experiment in China","volume":"43","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Demogr. Res."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102250","DOI":"10.1016\/j.polgeo.2020.102250","article-title":"Imposition to agonism: Voluntary poverty alleviation resettlement in rural China","volume":"82","author":"Gomersall","year":"2020","journal-title":"Political Geogr."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124","DOI":"10.1016\/j.landusepol.2014.07.011","article-title":"Solving one problem by creating a bigger one: The consequences of ecological resettlement for grassland restoration and poverty alleviation in Northwestern China","volume":"42","author":"Fan","year":"2015","journal-title":"Land Use Policy"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"499","DOI":"10.1111\/1467-7660.00316","article-title":"Tibetan Range Wars: Spatial Politics and Authority on the Grasslands of Amdo","volume":"34","author":"Yeh","year":"2003","journal-title":"Dev. Chang."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhou, Z., Feng, Q., Zhu, C., Luo, W., Wang, L., Zhao, X., and Zhang, L. (2022). The Spatial and Temporal Evolution of Ecological Environment Quality in Karst Ecologically Fragile Areas Driven by Poverty Alleviation Resettlement. Land, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/land11081150"},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"28","article-title":"Studies on the Sustainable Development of Ecological Emigration in Prairie Areas \u2014A Case Study in Wulatezhong Banner of Inner Mongolia Region","volume":"21","author":"Zhu","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Arid. Land Resour. Environ."},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"505","article-title":"Research on the changes of migrant\u2019s livelihood strategies and their ecological effects: A case study of Hongsipu District in Ningxia Province","volume":"37","author":"Jia","year":"2016","journal-title":"Res. Agric. Mod."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, T., Du, Z., Yang, J., Yao, X., Ou, C., Niu, B., and Yan, S. (2021). Land cover mapping and ecological risk assessment in the context of recent ecological migration. Remote Sens., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13071381"},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"618","article-title":"Spatial migration characteristics and ecological impacts of ecological migrants in arid regions: A case of Gulang County, Gansu Province","volume":"45","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Arid Land Geogr."},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"1","article-title":"Analysis of temporal and spatial evolution of ESV in Karst Ecologically Vulnerable Region based on the Poverty-alleviation relocation project from inhospitable areas","volume":"42","author":"Feng","year":"2022","journal-title":"Acta Ecol. Sin."},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"105","article-title":"Quantifying the effectiveness of ecological restoration projects on long-term vegetation dynamics in the karst regions of Southwest China","volume":"54","author":"Tong","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"535","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-1963(03)00121-6","article-title":"Discrimination between climate and human-induced dryland degradation","volume":"57","author":"Evans","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Arid. Environ."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2016.12.003","article-title":"Application of time series of remotely sensed normalized difference water, vegetation and moisture indices in characterizing flood dynamics of large-scale arid zone floodplains","volume":"190","author":"Mohammadi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"637","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2016.09.007","article-title":"Thermal infrared remote sensing of urban heat: Hotspots, vegetation, and an assessment of techniques for use in urban planning","volume":"186","author":"Coutts","year":"2016","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"730","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolind.2018.05.055","article-title":"Prediction of ecological effects of potential population and impervious surface increases using a remote sensing based ecological index (RSEI)","volume":"93","author":"Xu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ecol. Indic."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xu, H., Wang, Y., Guan, H., Shi, T., and Hu, X. (2019). Detecting Ecological Changes with a Remote Sensing Based Ecological Index (RSEI) Produced Time Series and Change Vector Analysis. Remote Sens., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11202345"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1538-4632.1995.tb00338.x","article-title":"Local Indicators of Spatial Association\u2014LISA","volume":"27","author":"Anselin","year":"1995","journal-title":"Geogr. Anal."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Li, P., Wei, H., Wu, G., Wang, P., and Tan, X. (2017). Annual Report on Poverty Decuction of China, Social Sciences Academic Press."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107518","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolind.2021.107518","article-title":"Assessment of spatial\u2013temporal changes of ecological environment quality based on RSEI and GEE: A case study in Erhai Lake Basin, Yunnan province, China","volume":"125","author":"Xiong","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ecol. Indic."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"152","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2020.04.001","article-title":"Google Earth Engine for geo-big data applications: A meta-analysis and systematic review","volume":"164","author":"Tamiminia","year":"2020","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2016.04.011","article-title":"Landsat 8: Providing continuity and increased precision for measuring multi-decadal time series of total suspended matter","volume":"185","author":"Lymburner","year":"2016","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Parastatidis, D., Mitraka, Z., Chrysoulakis, N., and Abrams, M. (2017). Online global land surface temperature estimation from Landsat. Remote Sens., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs9121208"},{"key":"ref_37","first-page":"339","article-title":"Revision of the single-channel algorithm for land surface temperature retrieval from Landsat thermal-infrared data","volume":"47","author":"Sobrino","year":"2008","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolind.2018.02.006","article-title":"A new remote sensing index for assessing the spatial heterogeneity in urban ecological quality: A case from Fuzhou City, China","volume":"89","author":"Hu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ecol. Indic."},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"64","article-title":"Detection of Approximate Potential Trend Turning Points in Temperature Time Series (1941-2010) for Asansol Weather Observation Station, West Bengal, India","volume":"4","author":"Chatterjee","year":"2014","journal-title":"Atmos. Clim. Sci."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13729","DOI":"10.3390\/rs71013729","article-title":"Spatio-Temporal Changes in Vegetation Activity and Its Driving Factors during the Growing Season in China from 1982 to 2011","volume":"7","author":"Qu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"1269","article-title":"Assessment of ecological environment quality in the Changbai Mountain Nature Reserve based on remote sensing technology","volume":"35","author":"Wang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Prog. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126995","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2021.126995","article-title":"Spatiotemporal change detection of ecological quality and the associated affecting factors in Dongting Lake Basin, Based on RSEI","volume":"302","author":"Yuan","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Qi, X., Li, Q., Yue, Y., Liao, C., and Xiong, Y. (2021). Rural\u2013Urban Migration and Conservation Drive the Ecosystem Services Improvement in China Karst: A Case Study of HuanJiang County, Guangxi. Remote Sens., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13040566"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1038\/s41893-021-00843-y","article-title":"A large but transient carbon sink from urbanization and rural depopulation in China","volume":"5","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Sustain."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16954","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-35108-w","article-title":"Influences of vertical differences in population emigration on mountainous vegetation greenness: A case study in the Taihang Mountains","volume":"8","author":"Li","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_46","first-page":"326","article-title":"Resettlement and climate change vulnerability: Evidence from rural China","volume":"6137","author":"Rogers","year":"2015","journal-title":"Glob. Environ. Chang."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"474","DOI":"10.1038\/d41586-019-02789-w","article-title":"China\u2019s tree-planting drive could falter in a warming world","volume":"573","author":"Mark","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9895","DOI":"10.3390\/rs6109895","article-title":"Is forest restoration in the southwest China Karst promoted mainly by climate change or human-induced factors?","volume":"6","author":"Cai","year":"2014","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"333","DOI":"10.1007\/s13157-010-0019-9","article-title":"The relative impact of human disturbances on the vegetation of a large wetland complex","volume":"30","author":"Tousignant","year":"2010","journal-title":"Wetlands"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104569","DOI":"10.1016\/j.landusepol.2020.104569","article-title":"Monitoring the effects of land consolidation on the ecological environmental quality based on remote sensing: A case study of Chaohu Lake Basin, China","volume":"95","author":"Guo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Land Use Policy"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nie, X., Hu, Z., Zhu, Q., and Ruan, M. (2021). Research on temporal and spatial resolution and the driving forces of ecological environment quality in coal mining areas considering topographic correction. Remote Sens., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13142815"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1038\/s41893-017-0004-x","article-title":"Increased vegetation growth and carbon stock in China karst via ecological engineering","volume":"1","author":"Tong","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Sustain."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/14\/23\/5920\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T01:25:05Z","timestamp":1760145905000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/14\/23\/5920"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,23]]},"references-count":52,"journal-issue":{"issue":"23","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,12]]}},"alternative-id":["rs14235920"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs14235920","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,23]]}}}