{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,6]],"date-time":"2026-02-06T06:46:06Z","timestamp":1770360366132,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":43,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"23","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,24]],"date-time":"2022-11-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1669248000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["61801079"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["61801079"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["62071383"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["62071383"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["61871418"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["61871418"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["ISN22-15"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ISN22-15"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["6142218200408"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["6142218200408"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["DUT22JC05"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["DUT22JC05"]}]},{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Integrated Services Networks","award":["61801079"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["61801079"]}]},{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Integrated Services Networks","award":["62071383"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["62071383"]}]},{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Integrated Services Networks","award":["61871418"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["61871418"]}]},{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Integrated Services Networks","award":["ISN22-15"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ISN22-15"]}]},{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Integrated Services Networks","award":["6142218200408"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["6142218200408"]}]},{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Integrated Services Networks","award":["DUT22JC05"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["DUT22JC05"]}]},{"name":"Science and Technology on Underwater Information and Control Laboratory","award":["61801079"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["61801079"]}]},{"name":"Science and Technology on Underwater Information and Control Laboratory","award":["62071383"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["62071383"]}]},{"name":"Science and Technology on Underwater Information and Control Laboratory","award":["61871418"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["61871418"]}]},{"name":"Science and Technology on Underwater Information and Control Laboratory","award":["ISN22-15"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ISN22-15"]}]},{"name":"Science and Technology on Underwater Information and Control Laboratory","award":["6142218200408"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["6142218200408"]}]},{"name":"Science and Technology on Underwater Information and Control Laboratory","award":["DUT22JC05"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["DUT22JC05"]}]},{"name":"Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities","award":["61801079"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["61801079"]}]},{"name":"Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities","award":["62071383"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["62071383"]}]},{"name":"Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities","award":["61871418"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["61871418"]}]},{"name":"Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities","award":["ISN22-15"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ISN22-15"]}]},{"name":"Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities","award":["6142218200408"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["6142218200408"]}]},{"name":"Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities","award":["DUT22JC05"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["DUT22JC05"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>With the development of the underwater acoustic (UWA) adaptive communication system, energy-efficient transmission has become a critical topic in underwater acoustic (UWA) communications. Due to the unique characteristics of the underwater environment, the transmitter node will almost always have outdated channel state information (CSI), which results in low energy efficiency. In this paper, we take full advantage of bidirectional links and propose an adaptive modulation and coding (AMC) scheme that aims to maximize the long-term energy efficiency of a single link by jointly scheduling the coding rate, modulation order, and transmission power. Considering the complexity characteristics of UWA channels, we proposed a bit error ratio (BER) estimation method based on deep neural networks (DNN). The proposed network could realize channel estimation, feature extraction, and BER estimation by using a fixed pilot of the feedback link. Then, we design a channel classification method based on the estimated BERs of the modulation and coding scheme (MCS) and further model the UWA channels as a finite-state Markov chain (FSMC) with an unknown transition probability. Thus, we formulate the AMC problem as a Markov Decision Process (MDP) and solve it through a reinforcement learning framework. Considering the large state-action pairs, a double deep Q-network (DDQN) based scheme is proposed. Simulation results demonstrate that the proposed AMC scheme outperforms the fixed MCS with a perfect channel information state, and achieves near-optimal energy efficiency.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14235959","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,25]],"date-time":"2022-11-25T03:00:13Z","timestamp":1669345213000},"page":"5959","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":18,"title":["Adaptive Modulation and Coding for Underwater Acoustic Communications Based on Data-Driven Learning Algorithm"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8390-3787","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lianyou","family":"Jing","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Information and Communication Engineering, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116024, China"},{"name":"The State Key Laboratory of Integrated Services Networks, Xidian University, Xi\u2019an 710071, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4491-7024","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chaofan","family":"Dong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Information and Communication Engineering, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116024, China"}]},{"given":"Chengbing","family":"He","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Marine Science and Technology, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi\u2019an 710072, China"}]},{"given":"Wentao","family":"Shi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Marine Science and Technology, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi\u2019an 710072, China"}]},{"given":"Hongxi","family":"Yin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Information and Communication Engineering, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116024, China"},{"name":"The State Key Laboratory of Integrated Services Networks, Xidian University, Xi\u2019an 710071, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2652","DOI":"10.1109\/TWC.2019.2906309","article-title":"Localization of Energy Harvesting Empowered Underwater Optical Wireless Sensor Networks","volume":"18","author":"Saeed","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Wirel. Commun."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3080","DOI":"10.1109\/TVT.2020.2967429","article-title":"A New IDMA System Based on CSK Modulation for Multiuser Underwater Acoustic Communications","volume":"69","author":"Jing","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4791","DOI":"10.1109\/TII.2019.2940745","article-title":"Bidirectional Prediction-Based Underwater Data Collection Protocol for End-Edge-Cloud Orchestrated System","volume":"16","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Informat."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"284","DOI":"10.1109\/MNET.001.1900534","article-title":"Preserving Location Privacy in UASN through Collaboration and Semantic Encapsulation","volume":"34","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Netw."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Daniels, R., and Heath, R.W. (2010, January 12\u201315). Online adaptive modulation and coding with support vector machines. Proceedings of the 2010 European Wireless Conference (EW), Lucca, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/EW.2010.5483527"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"665","DOI":"10.1109\/LWC.2018.2881978","article-title":"Deep Convolutional Neural Networks for Link Adaptations in MIMO-OFDM Wireless Systems","volume":"8","author":"Elwekeil","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Wirel. Commun. Lett."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Benson, A., Proakis, J., and Stojanovic, M. (2000, January 11\u201314). Towards robust adaptive acoustic communications. Proceedings of the OCEANS 2000 MTS\/IEEE Conference and Exhibition. Conference Proceedings (Cat. No.00CH37158), Providence, RI, USA."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3749","DOI":"10.1121\/1.2935305","article-title":"Adaptive coding-modulation for shallow-water UWA communications","volume":"123","author":"Mani","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tomasi, B., Toni, L., Casari, P., Rossi, L., and Zorzi, M. (2010, January 20\u201323). Performance study of variable-rate modulation for underwater communications based on experimental data. Proceedings of the OCEANS 2010 MTS\/IEEE SEATTLE, Seattle, WA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/OCEANS.2010.5664467"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"357","DOI":"10.1109\/JOE.2013.2253212","article-title":"Adaptive OFDM Modulation for Underwater Acoustic Communications: Design Considerations and Experimental Results","volume":"39","author":"Radosevic","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE J. Ocean. Eng."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"327","DOI":"10.1109\/JOE.2014.2323365","article-title":"Adaptive Modulation and Coding for Underwater Acoustic OFDM","volume":"40","author":"Wan","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE J. Ocean. Eng."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4127","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2015.2453552","article-title":"Dynamic Node Cooperation in an Underwater Data Collection Network","volume":"16","author":"Zhang","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5798","DOI":"10.1109\/TWC.2021.3070363","article-title":"Adaptive Coding and Bit-Power Loading Algorithms for Underwater Acoustic Transmissions","volume":"20","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Wirel. Commun."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9063","DOI":"10.1109\/TVT.2021.3099797","article-title":"Channel State Information Prediction for Adaptive Underwater Acoustic Downlink OFDMA System: Deep Neural Networks Based Approach","volume":"70","author":"Liu","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ma, Y., Cao, Y., Vrudhula, S., and Seo, J.-S. (2017, January 22\u201324). Optimizing Loop Operation and Dataflow in FPGA Acceleration of Deep Convolutional Neural Networks. Proceedings of the ACM\/SIGDA International Symposium Field-Programmable Gate Arrays, Monterey, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/3020078.3021736"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Soomro, Z.A., Memon, T.D., Naz, F., and Ali, A. (2020, January 29\u201330). FPGA Based Real-Time Face Authorization System for Electronic Voting System. Proceedings of the International Conference on Computing, Mathematics and Engineering Technologies, Sukkur, Pakistan.","DOI":"10.1109\/iCoMET48670.2020.9073880"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Al Koutayni, M.R., Rybalkin, V., Malik, J., Elhayek, A., Weis, C., Reis, G., Wehn, N., and Stricker, D. (2020). Real-Time Energy Efficient Hand Pose Estimation: A Case Study. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20102828"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, B., Pandey, S., Fang, H., Lyv, Y., Li, J., Chen, J., Xie, M., Wan, L., Liu, H., and Ding, C. (2020, January 10\u201312). Ftrans: Energy-efficient acceleration of transformers using FPGA. Proceedings of the ACM\/IEEE International Symposium Low Power Electronics and Design, Boston, MA, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/3370748.3406567"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Maor, G., Zeng, X., Wang, Z., and Hu, Y. (2019, January 17\u201320). An FPGA implementation of stochastic computing-based LSTM. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Computer Design, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCD46524.2019.00014"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apacoust.2021.108128","article-title":"Environment-aware communication channel quality prediction for underwater acoustic transmissions: A machine learning method","volume":"181","author":"Chen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Appl. Acoust."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Pelekanakis, K., Cazzanti, L., Zappa, G., and Alves, J. (September, January 30). Decision tree-based adaptive modulation for underwater acoustic communications. Proceedings of the IEEE 3rd Underwater Communications and Networking Conference, Lerici, Italy."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pelekanakis, K., and Cazzanti, L. (2018, January 22\u201325). On Adaptive Modulation for low SNR Underwater Acoustic Communications. Proceedings of the OCEANS 2018 MTS\/IEEE Charleston, Charleston, SC, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/OCEANS.2018.8604521"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1808","DOI":"10.1109\/LCOMM.2020.2990188","article-title":"Efficiency Enhancement for Underwater Adaptive Modulation and Coding Systems: Via Sparse Principal Component Analysis","volume":"24","author":"Huang","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Lett."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s13638-020-01818-x","article-title":"Adaptive modulation and coding in underwater acoustic communications: A machine learning perspective","volume":"2020","author":"Huang","year":"2020","journal-title":"EURASIP J. Wireless Commun. Netw."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73957","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2020.2981973","article-title":"Link Adaptation on an Underwater Communications Network Using Machine Learning Algorithms: Boosted Regression Tree Approach","volume":"8","author":"Alamgir","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30408","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2021.3058981","article-title":"Iterative Learning for Reliable Link Adaptation in the Internet of Underwater Things","volume":"9","author":"Byun","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2541","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2017.2784239","article-title":"Reinforcement Learning-Based Adaptive Transmission in Time-Varying Underwater Acoustic Channels","volume":"6","author":"Wang","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fu, Q., and Song, A. (2018, January 22\u201325). Adaptive Modulation for Underwater Acoustic Communications Based on Reinforcement Learning. In Proceedings of the OCEANS 2018 MTS\/IEEE Charleston, Charleston, SC, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/OCEANS.2018.8604746"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67539","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2019.2918506","article-title":"Reinforcement Learning-Based Adaptive Modulation and Coding for Efficient Underwater Communications","volume":"7","author":"Su","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"883","DOI":"10.1109\/LCOMM.2020.3041937","article-title":"Reinforcement Learning Based Efficient Underwater Image Communication","volume":"25","author":"Su","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Lett."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6844","DOI":"10.1109\/TWC.2020.3006230","article-title":"Adaptive Modulation for Long-Range Underwater Acoustic Communication","volume":"19","author":"Huang","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Wirel. Commun."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhu, Z., Ye, X., and Fu, L. (2020, January 5\u201330). Deep Reinforcement Learning Based Energy Efficient Underwater Acoustic Communications. Proceedings of the Global Oceans 2020: Singapore\u2014U.S. Gulf Coast, Biloxi, MS, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/IEEECONF38699.2020.9389171"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1109\/JPROC.2009.2031562","article-title":"Single Carrier Modulation With Nonlinear Frequency Domain Equalization: An Idea Whose Time Has Come\u2014Again","volume":"98","author":"Benvenuto","year":"2010","journal-title":"Proc. IEEE"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"He, C., Huo, S., Wang, H., Zhang, Q., and Huang, J. (2015, January 19\u201324). Single carrier with multi-channel time-frequency domain equalization for underwater acoustic communications. Proceedings of the 2015 IEEE International Conference on Acoustics, Speech and Signal Processing (ICASSP), South Brisbane, QLD, Australia.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICASSP.2015.7178523"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73324","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2019.2919757","article-title":"Time-Frequency Domain Turbo Equalization for Single-Carrier Underwater Acoustic Communications","volume":"7","author":"He","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108631","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apacoust.2022.108631","article-title":"Frequency domain direct adaptive turbo equalization based on block least mean square for underwater acoustic communications","volume":"190","author":"Jing","year":"2022","journal-title":"Appl. Acoust."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Urick, R.J. (1983). Principles of Underwater Sound, McGraw-Hill."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"701","DOI":"10.1109\/JOE.2013.2278787","article-title":"Statistical Characterization and Computationally Efficient Modeling of a Class of Underwater Acoustic Communication Channels","volume":"38","author":"Qarabaqi","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE J. Ocean. Eng."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"234","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbe.2018.11.010","article-title":"A speech recognition system based on electromyography for the rehabilitation of dysarthric patients: A Thai syllable study","volume":"39","author":"Jong","year":"2019","journal-title":"Biocybern. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2154","DOI":"10.1109\/TCSVT.2017.2709465","article-title":"Anchored Neighborhood Index for Face Sketch Synthesis","volume":"28","author":"Wang","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Circuits Syst. Video Technol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114","DOI":"10.1109\/LWC.2017.2757490","article-title":"Power of deep learning for channel estimation and signal detection in OFDM systems","volume":"7","author":"Ye","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Wirel. Commun. Lett."},{"key":"ref_42","first-page":"229","article-title":"Reinforcement learning: An introduction","volume":"17","author":"Sutton","year":"1999","journal-title":"Robotica"},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"2094","article-title":"Deep reinforcement learning with double Q-learning","volume":"16","author":"Guez","year":"2016","journal-title":"AAAI"}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/14\/23\/5959\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T01:26:17Z","timestamp":1760145977000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/14\/23\/5959"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,24]]},"references-count":43,"journal-issue":{"issue":"23","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,12]]}},"alternative-id":["rs14235959"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs14235959","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,24]]}}}