{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,31]],"date-time":"2026-01-31T05:10:37Z","timestamp":1769836237450,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":124,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"24","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,14]],"date-time":"2022-12-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1670976000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA)"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.mdpi.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The upper atmospheres of the Giant Planets, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune are transition regions between meteorological layers and outer space. As a result of their exceptionally rarefied nature, they are highly sensitive and therefore revealing probes of the forcing exerted both from above and below. This review provides an overview of these upper atmospheres and the major processes that take place within them, including their powerful auroras, the giant planet \u2018energy crisis\u2019 and the decay of Saturn\u2019s rings into the planet. We discuss the many remote-sensing tools that have been used to understand them, for example, large ground-based observatories such as the Keck telescope, space-based observatories such as the Hubble Space Telescope and orbiters such as the Cassini spacecraft. Looking into the future, we discuss the possibilities afforded by the latest and next generation of observatories and space missions, such as the James Webb Space Telescope.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14246326","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,14]],"date-time":"2022-12-14T04:15:00Z","timestamp":1670991300000},"page":"6326","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["What the Upper Atmospheres of Giant Planets Reveal"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4218-1191","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"James","family":"O\u2019Donoghue","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Solar System Science, JAXA Institute of Space and Astronautical Science, Sagamihara 252-5210, Japan"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3990-670X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tom","family":"Stallard","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mathematics, Physics and Electrical Engineering, Northumbria University, Newcastle-upon-Tyne NE1 8ST, UK"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1029\/JZ060i002p00213","article-title":"Observations of a Variable Radio Source Associated with the Planet Jupiter","volume":"60","author":"Burke","year":"1955","journal-title":"J. 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The Measurement of \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                  \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                    \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                      \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                        H\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                        3\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                        +\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                      \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                    \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                  \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t               Vibrational Temperature, Column Density, and Total Emission","volume":"156","author":"Stallard","year":"2002","journal-title":"Icarus"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L55","DOI":"10.1086\/185811","article-title":"Infrared emissions of \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                  \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                    \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                      \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                        H\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                        3\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                        +\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                      \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                    \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                  \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t               in the atmosphere of Jupiter in the 2.1 and 4.0 micron region","volume":"360","author":"Miller","year":"1990","journal-title":"Astrophys. 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(Space Phys.)"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"539","DOI":"10.1038\/340539a0","article-title":"Detection of \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                  \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                    \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                      \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                        H\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                        3\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                        +\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                      \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                    \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                  \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t               on Jupiter","volume":"340","author":"Drossart","year":"1989","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1006\/icar.1994.1015","article-title":"Latitudinal Temperature Variations of Jovian \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                  \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                    \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                      \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                        H\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                        3\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                        +","volume":"107","author":"Ballester","year":"1994","journal-title":"Icarus"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L109","DOI":"10.1086\/186843","article-title":"Detection of \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                  \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                    \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                      \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                        H\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                        3\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                        +\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                      \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                    \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                  \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t               Infrared Emission Lines in Saturn","volume":"408","author":"Geballe","year":"1993","journal-title":"Astrophys. J."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1016\/j.icarus.2018.10.027","article-title":"Observations of the chemical and thermal response of \u2019ring rain\u2019 on Saturn\u2019s ionosphere","volume":"322","author":"Moore","year":"2019","journal-title":"Icarus"},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"989","article-title":"The Detection of \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                  \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                    \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                      \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                        H\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                        3\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                        +\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                      \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                    \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                  \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t               in Uranus\u2019 Atmosphere. 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Soc."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L7","DOI":"10.1051\/0004-6361:20030414","article-title":"The infrared spectrum of Neptune at 3.5-4.1 microns: Search for \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                  \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                    \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                      \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                        H\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                        3\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                        +\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                      \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                    \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                  \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t               and evidence for recent meteorological variations","volume":"403","author":"Feuchtgruber","year":"2003","journal-title":"Astron. Astrophys."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"641","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2966.2010.17468.x","article-title":"New limits on \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                  \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                    \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                      \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                        H\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                        3\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                        +\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                      \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                    \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                  \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t               abundance on Neptune using Keck NIRSPEC","volume":"410","author":"Melin","year":"2011","journal-title":"Mon. 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Soc."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3714","DOI":"10.1093\/mnras\/stx3029","article-title":"The quest for \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                  \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                    \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                      \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                        H\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                        3\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                        +\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                      \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                    \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                  \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t                \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t               at Neptune: Deep burn observations with NASA IRTF iSHELL","volume":"474","author":"Melin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mon. 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