{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T01:43:40Z","timestamp":1760147020593,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":23,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,1]],"date-time":"2023-01-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1672531200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Malaysia Research University Network","award":["R.J130000.7809.4L881","R.J130000.7809.4L882","Q.J130000.2409.08G97"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R.J130000.7809.4L881","R.J130000.7809.4L882","Q.J130000.2409.08G97"]}]},{"name":"Ministry of Higher Education, Malaysia, and UTM High Impact Research","award":["R.J130000.7809.4L881","R.J130000.7809.4L882","Q.J130000.2409.08G97"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R.J130000.7809.4L881","R.J130000.7809.4L882","Q.J130000.2409.08G97"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The increasing concentration of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions due to increased fossil fuel consumption for manufacturing activities to support population growth is worrisome. Carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4) remain the two GHGs that contribute to the impact of global warming, and inventorying their concentrations is important for monitoring their changes, which can be used to infer their emissions over time. Hence, this article highlights sniffer4D, an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV)-based air pollutant mapping system that visualise and analyse three-dimensional (3D) air pollution data in real time, for mapping GHGs concentrations within industrial areas. Consequently, GHGs concentrations for two industrial and adjacent residential areas in Johor, Peninsular Malaysia were mapped. The GHGs concentrations were validated using a ground-based portable gas detector. The results revealed that CO2 has the highest concentration mean of 625.235 mg\/m3, followed by CH4 with a mean of 249.239 mg\/m3. The mapped UAV GHG concentration also reported good agreement with the in situ observations with an RMSE of 7 and 6 mg\/m3 for CO2 and CH4 concentration, respectively. Ozone and nitrogen dioxide mixture (O3 + NO2) with a mean concentration of 249 \u03bcg\/m3 and an RMSE of 9 \u03bcg\/m3 are the remaining significant concentrations reported. This approach shall assist in fast-tracking the United Nations climate change mitigation agenda.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs15010255","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,2]],"date-time":"2023-01-02T03:00:59Z","timestamp":1672628459000},"page":"255","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Mapping of Greenhouse Gas Concentration in Peninsular Malaysia Industrial Areas Using Unmanned Aerial Vehicle-Based Sniffer Sensor"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8284-3332","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mazlan","family":"Hashim","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Built Environment & Surveying, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor Bahru 81310, Johor, Malaysia"},{"name":"Geoscience and Digital Earth Centre (INSTeG), Research Institute for Sustainable Environment, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor Bahru 81310, Johor, Malaysia"}]},{"given":"Hui Lin","family":"Ng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Built Environment & Surveying, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor Bahru 81310, Johor, Malaysia"}]},{"given":"Dahiru Mohammed","family":"Zakari","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Built Environment & Surveying, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor Bahru 81310, Johor, Malaysia"}]},{"given":"Dalhatu Aliyu","family":"Sani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Built Environment & Surveying, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor Bahru 81310, Johor, Malaysia"}]},{"given":"Musa Muhammad","family":"Chindo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Built Environment & Surveying, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor Bahru 81310, Johor, Malaysia"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7439-8870","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Noordyana","family":"Hassan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Built Environment & Surveying, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor Bahru 81310, Johor, Malaysia"},{"name":"Geoscience and Digital Earth Centre (INSTeG), Research Institute for Sustainable Environment, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor Bahru 81310, Johor, Malaysia"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9506-7878","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Muna Maryam","family":"Azmy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Tourism, Hospitality & Environmental Management, Universiti Utara Malaysia, Sintok 06010, Kedah Darul Aman, Malaysia"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8783-5120","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Amin Beiranvand","family":"Pour","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Geoscience and Digital Earth Centre (INSTeG), Research Institute for Sustainable Environment, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor Bahru 81310, Johor, Malaysia"},{"name":"Institute of Oceanography and Environment (INOS), Universiti Malaysia Terengganu (UMT), Kuala Nerus 21030, Terengganu, Malaysia"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"1","article-title":"Role of greenhouse gas in climate change","volume":"71","author":"Manabe","year":"2019","journal-title":"Tellus A Dyn. Meteorol. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Smith, A.P. (2008). Proof of the Atmospheric Greenhouse Effect. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Houghton, J. (2004). Global Warming: The Complete Briefing, Cambridge University Press.","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9781139165044"},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"19","article-title":"Modeling and spatial analysis of greenhouse gas emissions from fuel combustion in the industry sector in Poland","volume":"5","author":"Halushchak","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. Q. J."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Clarke, L., Edmonds, J., Jacoby, H., Pitcher, H., Reilly, J., and Richels, R. (2006). CCSP Synthesis and Assessment Product 2.1, Part A: Scenarios of Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Atmospheric Concentrations, US Government Printing Office."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Stocker, T.F., Qin, D., Plattner, G.K., Tignor, M., Allen, S.K., Boschung, J., Nauels, A., Xia, Y., Bex, V., and Midgley, P.M. (2013). Climate change 2013: The physical science basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press. Available online: http:\/\/www.ipcc.ch\/report\/ar5\/wg2\/."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment Malaysia (2022, October 23). Malaysia: Biennial Update Report to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. Available online: https:\/\/unfccc.int\/sites\/default\/files\/resource\/MALBUR1.pdf."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"947","DOI":"10.1007\/s11027-016-9709-9","article-title":"A comparison of five high-resolution spatially-explicit, fossil-fuel, carbon dioxide emission inventories for the United States","volume":"22","author":"Hutchins","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mitig. Adapt. Strateg. Glob. Change"},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Malaysia Energy Commission (2022, October 20). Efficient Management of Electrical Energy Regulations 2008, Available online: https:\/\/www.st.gov.my\/images\/article\/polisi\/regulation_suruhanjaya\/bi-efficient_management_of__electrical_energy_regulations_2008.pdf."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Ashrae Malaysia Chapter (2022, October 23). Energy Efficiency and Conservation Act Final Drafting. Available online: https:\/\/www.ashrae.org.my\/newsinfo\/energy-efficiency-and-conservation-act-final-drafting-1."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2668","DOI":"10.1021\/acsearthspacechem.1c00106","article-title":"Sensitive Drone Mapping of Methane Emissions without the Need for Supplementary Ground-Based Measurements","volume":"5","author":"Bastviken","year":"2021","journal-title":"ACS Earth Space Chem."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mlambo, R., Woodhouse, I.H., Gerard, F., and Anderson, K. (2017). Structure from Motion (SfM) Photogrammetry with Drone Data: A Low Cost Method for Monitoring Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Forests in Developing Countries. Forests, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/f8030068"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1216","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2017.07.196","article-title":"Prediction of air pollutants concentrations from multiple sources using AERMOD coupled with WRF prognostic model","volume":"166","author":"Afzali","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"142345","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2020.142345","article-title":"Mapping the susceptibility of UNESCO World Cultural Heritage sites in Europe to ambient (outdoor) air pollution","volume":"754","author":"Spezzano","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"276","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2016.12.027","article-title":"Global satellite observations of column-averaged carbon dioxide and methane: The GHG-CCI XCO2 and XCH4 CRDP3 data set","volume":"203","author":"Buchwitz","year":"2017","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"399","DOI":"10.1080\/17583004.2018.1511383","article-title":"The challenges of using satellite data sets to assess historical land use change and associated greenhouse gas emissions: A case study of three Indonesian provinces","volume":"9","author":"Chatterton","year":"2018","journal-title":"Carbon Manag."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"He, Z., Lei, L., Zhang, Y., Sheng, M., Wu, C., Li, L., Zeng, Z.C., and Welp, L.R. (2020). Spatio-temporal mapping of multi-satellite observed column atmospheric CO2 using precision-weighted kriging method. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12030576"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.5094\/APR.2014.022","article-title":"Ambient carbon dioxide concentrations in industrial park areas: A monitoring and modeling study","volume":"5","author":"Wang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Atmos. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"426","DOI":"10.1080\/17538947.2016.1156777","article-title":"Global land mapping of satellite-observed CO2 total columns using spatio-temporal geostatistics","volume":"10","author":"Zeng","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Digit. Earth"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"915","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2018.06.035","article-title":"A spatial analysis of biogas potential from manure in Europe","volume":"94","author":"Scarlat","year":"2018","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Spyridonidis, A., Vasiliadou, I.A., Akratos, C.S., and Stamatelatou, \u039a. (2020). Performance of a Full-Scale Biogas Plant Operation in Greece and Its Impact on the Circular Economy. Water, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/w12113074"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1162\/jie.2007.1220","article-title":"A Spatial Analysis of Residential Greenhouse Gas Emissions in the Toronto Census Metropolitan Area","volume":"11","author":"VandeWeghe","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Ind. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6913","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-020-10618-1","article-title":"The impact trilemma of energy prices, taxation, and population on industrial and residential greenhouse gas emissions in Europe","volume":"28","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/15\/1\/255\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T17:55:41Z","timestamp":1760118941000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/15\/1\/255"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,1]]},"references-count":23,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,1]]}},"alternative-id":["rs15010255"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs15010255","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2072-4292"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,1]]}}}