{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,5]],"date-time":"2025-12-05T12:25:07Z","timestamp":1764937507234,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":37,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,6]],"date-time":"2023-01-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1672963200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Key Research and Development Program of China","award":["2021YFB3900800","42001397"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2021YFB3900800","42001397"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["2021YFB3900800","42001397"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2021YFB3900800","42001397"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Aiming at the problems of the low robustness and poor reliability of a single positioning source in complex indoor environments, a multi-level fusion indoor positioning technology considering credible evaluation is proposed. A multi-dimensional electromagnetic atlas including pseudolites (PL), Wi-Fi and a geomagnetic field is constructed, and the unsupervised learning model is used to sample in the latent space to achieve a feature-level fusion positioning. A location credibility evaluation method is designed to improve the credibility of the positioning system through a multi-dimensional data quality evaluation and heterogeneous information auxiliary constraints. Finally, a large number of experiments were carried out in the laboratory environment, and, finally, about 90% of the positioning error was better than 1 m, and the average positioning error was 0.56 m. Compared with several relatively advanced positioning methods (Inter-satellite CPDM\/Epoch-CPDS\/Z-KPI) at present, the average positioning accuracy is improved by about 56%, 83.5% and 82.9%, respectively, which verifies the effectiveness of the algorithm. To verify the effect of the proposed method in a practical application environment, the proposed positioning system is deployed in the 2022 Winter Olympics venues. The results show that the proposed method has a significant improvement in the positioning accuracy and continuity.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs15020353","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,9]],"date-time":"2023-01-09T04:47:08Z","timestamp":1673239628000},"page":"353","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["Multi-Level Fusion Indoor Positioning Technology Considering Credible Evaluation Analysis"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Lu","family":"Huang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Satellite Navigation System and Equipment Technology, Shijiazhuang 050081, China"},{"name":"The 54th Research Institute of China Electronics Technology Group Corporation, Shijiazhuang 050081, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Baoguo","family":"Yu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Satellite Navigation System and Equipment Technology, Shijiazhuang 050081, China"},{"name":"The 54th Research Institute of China Electronics Technology Group Corporation, Shijiazhuang 050081, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Shitong","family":"Du","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Satellite Navigation System and Equipment Technology, Shijiazhuang 050081, China"},{"name":"The 54th Research Institute of China Electronics Technology Group Corporation, Shijiazhuang 050081, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jun","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Satellite Navigation System and Equipment Technology, Shijiazhuang 050081, China"},{"name":"The 54th Research Institute of China Electronics Technology Group Corporation, Shijiazhuang 050081, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Haonan","family":"Jia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Satellite Navigation System and Equipment Technology, Shijiazhuang 050081, China"},{"name":"The 54th Research Institute of China Electronics Technology Group Corporation, Shijiazhuang 050081, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2964-7698","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jingxue","family":"Bi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Surveying and Geo-Informatics, Shandong Jianzhu University, Jinan 250101, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang, L., Li, H., Yu, B., Gan, X., Wang, B., Li, Y., and Zhu, R. (2020). Combination of smartphone MEMS sensors and environmental prior information for pedestrian indoor positioning. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20082263"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alarifi, A., Al-Salman, A., Alsaleh, M., Alnafessah, A., Al-Hadhrami, S., Al-Ammar, M.A., and Al-Khalifa, H.S. (2016). Ultra wideband indoor positioning technologies: Analysis and recent advances. Sensors, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/s16050707"},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Ijaz, F., Yang, H.K., Ahmad, A.W., and Lee, C. (2013, January 27\u201330). Indoor positioning: A review of indoor ultrasonic positioning systems. Proceedings of the 2013 15th International Conference on Advanced Communications Technology (ICACT), PyeongChang, Korea."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cosrev.2017.03.002","article-title":"Indoor location based services challenges, requirements and usability of current solutions","volume":"24","author":"Basiri","year":"2017","journal-title":"Comput. Sci. Rev."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Billa, A., Shayea, I., Alhammadi, A., Abdullah, Q., and Roslee, M. (2020, January 9\u201311). An overview of indoor localization technologies: Toward IoT navigation services. Proceedings of the 2020 IEEE 5th International Symposium on Telecommunication Technologies (ISTT), Shah Alam, Malaysia.","DOI":"10.1109\/ISTT50966.2020.9279369"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"725","DOI":"10.1049\/cmu2.12386","article-title":"Overview of WiFi fingerprinting-based indoor positioning","volume":"16","author":"Shang","year":"2022","journal-title":"IET Commun."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pmcj.2016.09.018","article-title":"D-Log: A WiFi Log-based differential scheme for enhanced indoor localization with single RSSI source and infrequent sampling rate","volume":"37","author":"Ren","year":"2017","journal-title":"Pervasive Mob. Comput."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, T., Cabani, A., and Chafouk, H. (2021). A Survey of Recent Indoor Localization Scenarios and Methodologies. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21238086"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Witrisal, K., Hinteregger, S., Kulmer, J., Leitinger, E., and Meissner, P. (2016, January 3\u20135). High-accuracy positioning for indoor applications: RFID, UWB, 5G, and beyond. Proceedings of the 2016 IEEE International Conference on RFID (RFID), Orlando, FL, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/RFID.2016.7487999"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pascacio, P., Casteleyn, S., Torres-Sospedra, J., Lohan, E.S., and Nurmi, J. (2021). Collaborative indoor positioning systems: A systematic review. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21031002"},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Mandal, A., Lopes, C.V., Givargis, T., Haghighat, A., Jurdak, R., and Baldi, P. (2005, January 6). Beep: 3D indoor positioning using audible sound. Proceedings of the Second IEEE Consumer Communications and Networking Conference, CCNC, Las Vegas, NV, USA."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Rossi, M., Seiter, J., Amft, O., Buchmeier, S., and Tr\u00f6ster, G. (2013, January 7\u20138). RoomSense: An indoor positioning system for smartphones using active sound probing. Proceedings of the 4th Augmented Human International Conference, New York, NY, USA."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1109\/TCE.2020.3015197","article-title":"Deep neural network-based indoor emergency awareness using contextual information from sound, human activity, and indoor position on mobile device","volume":"66","author":"Kim","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Consum. Electron."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Faragher, R., and Harle, R. (2014, January 8\u201312). An analysis of the accuracy of bluetooth low energy for indoor positioning applications. Proceedings of the 27th International Technical Meeting of The Satellite Division of the Institute of Navigation (ION GNSS+ 2014), Tampa, FL, USA."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Subhan, F., Hasbullah, H., Rozyyev, A., and Bakhsh, S.T. (2011, January 26\u201329). Indoor positioning in bluetooth networks using fingerprinting and lateration approach. Proceedings of the 2011 International Conference on Information Science and Applications, Jeju, Korea.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICISA.2011.5772436"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Puckdeevongs, A., Tripathi, N.K., Witayangkurn, A., and Saengudomlert, P. (2020). Classroom attendance systems based on Bluetooth Low Energy Indoor Positioning Technology for smart campus. Information, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/info11060329"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"612","DOI":"10.1109\/LMWC.2005.855392","article-title":"Using enhanced-TDOA measurement for indoor positioning","volume":"15","author":"Bocquet","year":"2005","journal-title":"IEEE Microw. Wirel. Compon. Lett."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"02001","DOI":"10.1051\/shsconf\/202214402001","article-title":"An Overview of Ultra-Wideband Positioning Technology and Its Applications","volume":"Volume 144","author":"Zhou","year":"2022","journal-title":"SHS Web of Conferences"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102353","DOI":"10.1016\/j.adhoc.2020.102353","article-title":"An overview of massive MIMO localization techniques in wireless cellular networks: Recent advances and outlook","volume":"111","author":"Alamu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ad Hoc Netw."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang, L., Yu, B., Li, H., Zhang, H., Li, S., Zhu, R., and Li, Y. (2020). HPIPS: A high-precision indoor pedestrian positioning system fusing WiFi-RTT, MEMS, and map information. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20236795"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103309","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autcon.2020.103309","article-title":"Top 10 technologies for indoor positioning on construction sites","volume":"118","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"Autom. Constr."},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"185138","article-title":"Recent advances in wireless indoor localization techniques and system","volume":"2013","author":"Farid","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Comput. Netw. Commun."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Poulose, A., Eyobu, S., and Han, D.S. (2019, January 11\u201313). A combined PDR and Wi-Fi trilateration algorithm for indoor localization. Proceedings of the 2019 International Conference on Artificial Intelligence in Information and Communication (ICAIIC), Okinawa, Japan.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICAIIC.2019.8669059"},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"311","article-title":"A review of indoor localization methods based on inertial sensors","volume":"2019","author":"Diaz","year":"2019","journal-title":"Geogr. Fingerpr. Data Creat. Syst. Indoor Position Indoor\/Outdoor Navig."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ouyang, G., and Abed-Meraim, K. (2022). A Survey of Magnetic-Field-Based Indoor Localization. Electronics, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics11060864"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4033","DOI":"10.1109\/TMECH.2022.3144345","article-title":"Robust Indoor Localization Using Histogram of Oriented Depth Model Feature Map for Intelligent Service Robotics","volume":"27","author":"Luo","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE\/ASME Trans. Mechatron."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang, L., Gan, X., Yu, B., Zhang, H., Li, S., Cheng, J., and Wang, B. (2019). An innovative fingerprint location algorithm for indoor positioning based on array pseudolite. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19204420"},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"85","article-title":"Research on Indoor Positioning Algorithm Based on Pseudolites","volume":"50","author":"Yu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Radio Eng."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153269","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2019.2948034","article-title":"A new array pseudolites technology for high precision indoor positioning","volume":"7","author":"Gan","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shum, L.C., Faieghi, R., Borsook, T., Faruk, T., Kassam, S., Nabavi, H., and Iaboni, A. (2022). Indoor Location Data for Tracking Human Behaviours: A Scoping Review. Sensors, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/s22031220"},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"1550147719884893","article-title":"A three-dimensional pattern recognition localization system based on a Bayesian graphical model","volume":"16","author":"Alhammadi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. Ournal Distrib. Sens. Netw."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Arigye, W., Pu, Q., Zhou, M., Khalid, W., and Tahir, M.J. (2022). RSSI Fingerprint Height Based Empirical Model Prediction for Smart Indoor Localization. Sensors, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/s22239054"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kuang, J., Niu, X., Zhang, P., and Chen, X. (2018). Indoor positioning based on pedestrian dead reckoning and magnetic field matching for smartphones. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18124142"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Birkel, U., and Weber, M. (2012, January 13\u201315). Indoor localization with UMTS compared to WLAN. Proceedings of the 2012 International Conference on Indoor Positioning and Indoor Navigation (IPIN), Sydney, NSW, Australia.","DOI":"10.1109\/IPIN.2012.6418933"},{"key":"ref_35","first-page":"871","article-title":"Implementation of android application for indoor positioning system with estimote BLE beacons","volume":"19","author":"Song","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Internet Technol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1189","DOI":"10.1109\/TIM.2018.2863478","article-title":"Indoor localization on smartphones using built-in sensors and map constraints","volume":"68","author":"Xia","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gusenbauer, D., Isert, C., and Kr\u00f6sche, J. (2010, January 15\u201317). Self-contained indoor positioning on off-the-shelf mobile devices. Proceedings of the 2010 International Conference on Indoor Positioning and Indoor Navigation, Zurich, Switzerland.","DOI":"10.1109\/IPIN.2010.5646681"}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/15\/2\/353\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T18:01:52Z","timestamp":1760119312000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/15\/2\/353"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,6]]},"references-count":37,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,1]]}},"alternative-id":["rs15020353"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs15020353","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2072-4292"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,6]]}}}