{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,13]],"date-time":"2026-02-13T17:13:00Z","timestamp":1771002780816,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":46,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,20]],"date-time":"2023-01-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1674172800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"project of the National Key R&amp;D Program of China","award":["2021YFB3901104"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2021YFB3901104"]}]},{"name":"project of the National Key R&amp;D Program of China","award":["41971394"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41971394"]}]},{"name":"project of the National Key R&amp;D Program of China","award":["2020132108"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2020132108"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2021YFB3901104"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2021YFB3901104"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["41971394"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41971394"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2020132108"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2020132108"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"2020 Report on Forestry Technological Developments and Monitoring and Assessment of Terrestrial Ecosystem Research","award":["2021YFB3901104"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2021YFB3901104"]}]},{"name":"2020 Report on Forestry Technological Developments and Monitoring and Assessment of Terrestrial Ecosystem Research","award":["41971394"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41971394"]}]},{"name":"2020 Report on Forestry Technological Developments and Monitoring and Assessment of Terrestrial Ecosystem Research","award":["2020132108"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2020132108"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Gross primary productivity (GPP) is an important parameter that represents the productivity of vegetation and responses to various ecological environments. Using the Mann\u2013Kendall methods, Pearson correlation, and the Geodetector, this study investigated the spatiotemporal variation and driving factors of GPP from 2000 to 2020. The results showed that (1) in terms of spatial distribution, GPP showed a trend of \u201clow-high-low\u201d regions, with low values for grassland and arable land and a high value for forest land. The growth trend is fast in forest areas, while the growth trend is not obvious in cultivated areas. The regions with significant growth accounted for 68.73% of the whole region. (2) The whole region shows a growth rate of 2.07 g C\u2219m\u22122\u2219yr\u22121, showing obvious seasonality, with a slow growth trend in spring and autumn and a fast growth trend in summer. (3) The driving factors of GPP spatial differentiation in the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region were land surface temperature, land use type, and nighttime light data, while precipitation and downward surface shortwave radiation show no strong explanatory power for the spatial differentiation of GPP, which means that these two factors have less driving force on the spatial differentiation of GPP. The interaction of LUCC with the other factors presents two-factor enhancement, while the LST interaction with the other three factors presents non-linear enhancement. This study could provide a theoretical basis for the sustainable development of the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei Region.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs15030622","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,23]],"date-time":"2023-01-23T04:19:22Z","timestamp":1674447562000},"page":"622","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Spatiotemporal Distribution Pattern and Driving Factors Analysis of GPP in Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei Region by Long-Term MODIS Data"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Heyi","family":"Guo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Remote Sensing Science, Aerospace Information Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China"},{"name":"University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100094, China"}]},{"given":"Chunxiang","family":"Cao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Remote Sensing Science, Aerospace Information Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China"},{"name":"Forestry College, Inner Mongolia Agricultural University, Huhhot 010018, China"}]},{"given":"Min","family":"Xu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Remote Sensing Science, Aerospace Information Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China"}]},{"given":"Xinwei","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Remote Sensing Science, Aerospace Information Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China"}]},{"given":"Yiyu","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"China Siwei Surveying and Mapping Technology Co., Ltd., China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation, Beijing 100094, China"}]},{"given":"Kaimin","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Remote Sensing Science, Aerospace Information Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China"},{"name":"University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100094, China"}]},{"given":"Robert Shea","family":"Duerler","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Remote Sensing Science, Aerospace Information Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China"},{"name":"University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100094, China"}]},{"given":"Jingbo","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Remote Sensing Science, Aerospace Information Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China"},{"name":"University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100094, China"}]},{"given":"Xiaotong","family":"Gao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Remote Sensing Science, Aerospace Information Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China"},{"name":"University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100094, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"785","DOI":"10.1002\/2015RG000483","article-title":"Spatiotemporal patterns of terrestrial gross primary production: A review","volume":"53","author":"Anav","year":"2015","journal-title":"Rev. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"519","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2003.11.008","article-title":"Satellite-based modeling of gross primary production in an evergreen needleleaf forest","volume":"89","author":"Xiao","year":"2004","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e01724","DOI":"10.1002\/ecs2.1724","article-title":"A global study of GPP focusing on light-use efficiency in a random forest regression model","volume":"8","author":"Wei","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ecosphere"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1016\/0034-4257(94)00066-V","article-title":"Global Net Primary Production\u2014Combining Ecology and Remote-Sensing","volume":"51","author":"Field","year":"1995","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"815","DOI":"10.2307\/2845983","article-title":"Global primary production: A remote sensing approach","volume":"22","author":"Prince","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Biogeogr."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1416","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2010.01.022","article-title":"Global estimates of evapotranspiration and gross primary production based on MODIS and global meteorology data","volume":"114","author":"Yuan","year":"2010","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"547","DOI":"10.1641\/0006-3568(2004)054[0547:ACSMOG]2.0.CO;2","article-title":"A continuous satellite-derived measure of global terrestrial primary production","volume":"54","author":"Running","year":"2004","journal-title":"Bioscience"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"256","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2004.03.010","article-title":"Modeling gross primary production of temperate deciduous broadleaf forest using satellite images and climate data","volume":"91","author":"Xiao","year":"2004","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1653","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2011.02.024","article-title":"Parameterization of a diagnostic carbon cycle model for continental scale application","volume":"115","author":"King","year":"2011","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hu, L., Fan, W., Ren, H., Liu, S., Cui, Y., and Zhao, P. (2018). Spatiotemporal Dynamics in Vegetation GPP over the Great Khingan Mountains Using GLASS Products from 1982 to 2015. Remote Sens., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10030488"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1576","DOI":"10.1126\/science.271.5255.1576","article-title":"Exchange of carbon dioxide by a deciduous forest: Response to interannual climate variability","volume":"271","author":"Goulden","year":"1996","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"416","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agrformet.2015.09.005","article-title":"Improving the performance of remote sensing models for capturing intra- and inter-annual variations in daily GPP: An analysis using global FLUXNET tower data","volume":"214","author":"Verma","year":"2015","journal-title":"Agric. For. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"342","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2019.02.361","article-title":"A long-term and comprehensive assessment of the urbanization-induced impacts on vegetation net primary productivity","volume":"669","author":"Guan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104822","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaridenv.2022.104822","article-title":"Spatiotemporal tendency of agricultural water use efficiency in the northernmost Yellow River: Indicator comparison and interactive driving factors","volume":"205","author":"Cai","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Arid Environ."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, K., Cao, C., Xie, B., Xu, M., Yang, X., Guo, H., and Duerler, R.S. (2022). Analysis of the Spatial and Temporal Evolution Patterns of Grassland Health and Its Driving Factors in Xilingol. Remote Sens., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14205179"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"084032","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-9326\/ab31e4","article-title":"Trends and controls of terrestrial gross primary productivity of China during 2000\u20132016","volume":"14","author":"Ma","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128111","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2021.128111","article-title":"An analysis framework for the ecological security of urban agglomeration: A case study of the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei urban agglomeration","volume":"315","author":"Peng","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolind.2014.07.035","article-title":"Delinking indicators on regional industry development and carbon emissions: Beijing\u2013Tianjin\u2013Hebei economic band case","volume":"48","author":"Wang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ecol. Indic."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113168","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jenvman.2021.113168","article-title":"How to reconcile land use conflicts in mega urban agglomeration? A scenario-based study in the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region, China","volume":"296","author":"Bao","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1095","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2018.11.088","article-title":"The contribution of the Beijing, Tianjin and Hebei region\u2019s iron and steel industry to local air pollution in winter","volume":"245","author":"Yang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101052","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoinf.2020.101052","article-title":"Performance of four state-of-the-art GPP products (VPM, MOD17, BESS and PML) for grasslands in drought years","volume":"56","author":"Pei","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ecol. Inform."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agrformet.2006.03.006","article-title":"Growing season changes in the last century","volume":"137","author":"Linderholm","year":"2006","journal-title":"Agric. For. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2013.08.027","article-title":"New refinements and validation of the collection-6 MODIS land-surface temperature\/emissivity product","volume":"140","author":"Wan","year":"2014","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"459","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosres.2015.05.015","article-title":"Validation of a high-resolution precipitation database (CHIRPS) over Cyprus for a 30-year period","volume":"169","author":"Katsanos","year":"2016","journal-title":"Atmos. Res."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"170191","DOI":"10.1038\/sdata.2017.191","article-title":"TerraClimate, a high-resolution global dataset of monthly climate and climatic water balance from 1958\u20132015","volume":"5","author":"Abatzoglou","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Data"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"889","DOI":"10.5194\/essd-13-889-2021","article-title":"An extended time series (2000\u20132018) of global NPP-VIIRS-like nighttime light data from a cross-sensor calibration","volume":"13","author":"Chen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Earth Syst. Sci. Data"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2017.06.031","article-title":"Google Earth Engine: Planetary-scale geospatial analysis for everyone","volume":"202","author":"Gorelick","year":"2017","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Benesty, J., Chen, J., Huang, Y., and Cohen, I. (2009). Noise Reduction in Speech Processing, Springer."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"034009","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-9326\/ab65cc","article-title":"Radiance-based NIRv as a proxy for GPP of corn and soybean","volume":"15","author":"Wu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"1","article-title":"Kendall rank correlation and Mann-Kendall trend test","volume":"602","author":"McLeod","year":"2005","journal-title":"R Package Kendall"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"617","DOI":"10.1007\/s00704-014-1198-8","article-title":"Investigation of trend analysis of monthly total precipitation by an innovative method","volume":"120","author":"Ay","year":"2015","journal-title":"Theor. Appl. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1080\/13658810802443457","article-title":"Geographical Detectors-Based Health Risk Assessment and its Application in the Neural Tube Defects Study of the Heshun Region, China","volume":"24","author":"Wang","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Geogr. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"659","DOI":"10.1038\/17709","article-title":"Growing season extended in Europe","volume":"397","author":"Menzel","year":"1999","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139370","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2020.139370","article-title":"Changes in nutrient balance, environmental effects, and green development after returning farmland to forests: A case study in Ningxia, China","volume":"735","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, H., Sun, R., Peng, D., Yang, X., Wang, Y., Hu, Y., Zheng, S., Zhang, J., Bai, J., and Li, Q. (2021). Spatiotemporal dynamics of net primary productivity in China\u2019s urban lands during 1982\u20132015. Remote Sens., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13030400"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4015","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1700304115","article-title":"Climate change, human impacts, and carbon sequestration in China","volume":"115","author":"Fang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2103423118","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2103423118","article-title":"COS-derived GPP relationships with temperature and light help explain high-latitude atmospheric CO2 seasonal cycle amplification","volume":"118","author":"Hu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"767","article-title":"Spatiotemporal dynamic of NDVI in the Beijing\u2013Tianjin\u2013Hebei region based on MODIS data and quantitative attribution","volume":"21","author":"Yan","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Geo-Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108522","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agrformet.2021.108522","article-title":"Modelling the influence of incident radiation on the SIF-based GPP estimation for maize","volume":"307","author":"Liu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Agric. For. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106545","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolind.2020.106545","article-title":"Applying Geodetector to disentangle the contributions of natural and anthropogenic factors to NDVI variations in the middle reaches of the Heihe River Basin","volume":"117","author":"Zhu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ecol. Indic."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, H., Liu, J., Lei, X., Ju, Y., Bu, X., and Li, H. (2022). Quantitative Determination of Environmental Factors Governing the Snow Melting: A Geo-Detector Case Study in the Central Tienshan Mountains. Res. Square, preprint.","DOI":"10.21203\/rs.3.rs-1286383\/v1"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105459","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apgeochem.2022.105459","article-title":"Geodetector based identification of influencing factors on spatial distribution patterns of heavy metals in soil: A case in the upper reaches of the Yangtze River, China","volume":"146","author":"Qiao","year":"2022","journal-title":"Appl. Geochem."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhao, Y., Liu, L., Kang, S., Ao, Y., Han, L., and Ma, C.J.L. (2021). Quantitative analysis of factors influencing spatial distribution of soil erosion based on geo-detector model under diverse geomorphological types. Land, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/land10060604"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108005","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolind.2021.108005","article-title":"Spatiotemporal variation and influencing factors of vegetation dynamics based on Geodetector: A case study of the northwestern Yunnan Plateau, China","volume":"130","author":"Huo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ecol. Indic."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1662","DOI":"10.1007\/s11629-020-6515-3","article-title":"Spatial distribution pattern in mammal and bird richness and their relationship with ecosystem services in Sanjiangyuan National Park, China","volume":"18","author":"Wan","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Mount. Sci."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125169","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2020.125169","article-title":"Driving forces of carbon dioxide emissions in China\u2019s cities: An empirical analysis based on the geodetector method","volume":"287","author":"Xu","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/15\/3\/622\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T18:11:49Z","timestamp":1760119909000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/15\/3\/622"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,20]]},"references-count":46,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,2]]}},"alternative-id":["rs15030622"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs15030622","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,20]]}}}