{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,19]],"date-time":"2026-03-19T20:54:24Z","timestamp":1773953664021,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":74,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,28]],"date-time":"2023-01-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1674864000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["61731022"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["61731022"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["61871258"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["61871258"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["61929104"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["61929104"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["U21B2049"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["U21B2049"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["61860206004"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["61860206004"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["KZ201911417048"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["KZ201911417048"]}]},{"name":"NSFC Key Projects of International (Regional) Cooperation and Exchanges","award":["61731022"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["61731022"]}]},{"name":"NSFC Key Projects of International (Regional) Cooperation and Exchanges","award":["61871258"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["61871258"]}]},{"name":"NSFC Key Projects of International (Regional) Cooperation and Exchanges","award":["61929104"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["61929104"]}]},{"name":"NSFC Key Projects of International (Regional) Cooperation and Exchanges","award":["U21B2049"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["U21B2049"]}]},{"name":"NSFC Key Projects of International (Regional) Cooperation and Exchanges","award":["61860206004"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["61860206004"]}]},{"name":"NSFC Key Projects of International (Regional) Cooperation and Exchanges","award":["KZ201911417048"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["KZ201911417048"]}]},{"name":"Key Project of Education Commission of Beijing Municipal","award":["61731022"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["61731022"]}]},{"name":"Key Project of Education Commission of Beijing Municipal","award":["61871258"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["61871258"]}]},{"name":"Key Project of Education Commission of Beijing Municipal","award":["61929104"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["61929104"]}]},{"name":"Key Project of Education Commission of Beijing Municipal","award":["U21B2049"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["U21B2049"]}]},{"name":"Key Project of Education Commission of Beijing Municipal","award":["61860206004"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["61860206004"]}]},{"name":"Key Project of Education Commission of Beijing Municipal","award":["KZ201911417048"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["KZ201911417048"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Typical representations for arbitrary-oriented object detection tasks include the oriented bounding box (OBB), the quadrilateral bounding box (QBB), and the point set (PointSet). Each representation encounters problems that correspond to its characteristics, such as boundary discontinuity, square-like problems, representation ambiguity, and isolated points, which lead to inaccurate detection. Although many effective strategies have been proposed for various representations, there is still no unified solution. Current detection methods based on Gaussian modeling have demonstrated the possibility of resolving this dilemma; however, they remain limited to OBB. To go further, in this paper, we propose a unified Gaussian representation called G-Rep to construct Gaussian distributions for OBB, QBB, and PointSet, which achieves a unified solution to various representations and problems. Specifically, PointSet- or QBB-based object representations are converted into Gaussian distributions and their parameters are optimized using the maximum likelihood estimation algorithm. Then, three optional Gaussian metrics are explored to optimize the regression loss of the detector because of their excellent parameter optimization mechanisms. Furthermore, we also use Gaussian metrics for sampling to align label assignment and regression loss. Experimental results obtained on several publicly available datasets, such as DOTA, HRSC2016, UCAS-AOD, and ICDAR2015, show the excellent performance of the proposed method for arbitrary-oriented object detection.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs15030757","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,30]],"date-time":"2023-01-30T10:19:28Z","timestamp":1675073968000},"page":"757","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":85,"title":["G-Rep: Gaussian Representation for Arbitrary-Oriented Object Detection"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4984-3290","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Liping","family":"Hou","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Engineering Science, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0176-3088","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ke","family":"Lu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Engineering Science, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"},{"name":"Peng Cheng Laboratory, Shenzhen 518055, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7084-9101","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xue","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China"}]},{"given":"Yuqiu","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Engineering Science, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9460-802X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jian","family":"Xue","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Engineering Science, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Azimi, S.M., Vig, E., Bahmanyar, R., K\u00f6rner, M., and Reinartz, P. 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