{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,16]],"date-time":"2026-04-16T12:52:43Z","timestamp":1776343963977,"version":"3.51.2"},"reference-count":134,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,4]],"date-time":"2023-02-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1675468800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Climate change may cause severe hydrological droughts, leading to water shortages which will require to be assessed using high-resolution data. Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) satellite Terrestrial Water Storage (TWSA) estimates offer a promising solution to monitor hydrological drought, but its coarse resolution (1\u00b0) limits its applications to small regions of the Indus Basin Irrigation System (IBIS). Here we employed machine learning models such as Extreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost) and Artificial Neural Network (ANN) to downscale GRACE TWSA from 1\u00b0 to 0.25\u00b0. The findings revealed that the XGBoost model outperformed the ANN model with Nash Sutcliff Efficiency (NSE) (0.99), Pearson correlation (R) (0.99), Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) (5.22 mm), and Mean Absolute Error (MAE) (2.75 mm) between the predicted and GRACE-derived TWSA. Further, Water Storage Deficit Index (WSDI) and WSD (Water Storage Deficit) were used to determine the severity and episodes of droughts, respectively. The results of WSDI exhibited a strong agreement when compared with the Standardized Precipitation Evapotranspiration Index (SPEI) at different time scales (1-, 3-, and 6-months) and self-calibrated Palmer Drought Severity Index (sc-PDSI). Moreover, the IBIS had experienced increasing drought episodes, e.g., eight drought episodes were detected within the years 2010 and 2016 with WSDI of \u22121.20 and \u22121.28 and total WSD of \u2212496.99 mm and \u2212734.01 mm, respectively. The Partial Least Square Regression (PLSR) model between WSDI and climatic variables indicated that potential evaporation had the largest influence on drought after precipitation. The findings of this study will be helpful for drought-related decision-making in IBIS.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs15040873","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,6]],"date-time":"2023-02-06T05:29:05Z","timestamp":1675661345000},"page":"873","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":100,"title":["Spatial Downscaling of GRACE Data Based on XGBoost Model for Improved Understanding of Hydrological Droughts in the Indus Basin Irrigation System (IBIS)"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6377-6610","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Shoaib","family":"Ali","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Water Conservancy & Civil Engineering, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3265-372X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Behnam","family":"Khorrami","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of GIS, The Graduate School of Applied and Natural Sciences, Dokuz Eylul University, 35220 Izmir, Turkey"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5556-3738","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Muhammad","family":"Jehanzaib","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Institute of Engineering and Technology, Hanyang University, Ansan 15588, Republic of Korea"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1196-1248","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Aqil","family":"Tariq","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Wildlife, Fisheries and Aquaculture, College of Forest Resources, Mississippi State University, 775 Stone Boulevard, Starkville, MS 39762, USA"},{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Information Engineering in Surveying, Mapping and Remote Sensing, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430079, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5772-7345","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Muhammad","family":"Ajmal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Agricultural Engineering, University of Engineering & Technology, Peshawar 25120, Pakistan"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0726-1807","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Arfan","family":"Arshad","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biosystems and Agricultural Engineering, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2152-6672","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Muhammad","family":"Shafeeque","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Geography, University of Bremen, 28359 Bremen, Germany"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7295-0361","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Adil","family":"Dilawar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Resource and Environmental Information System, Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China"},{"name":"University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"}]},{"given":"Iqra","family":"Basit","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Remote Sensing, GIS, and Climate Research Lab (National Center of GIS and Space Application), Centre for Remote Sensing, University of The Punjab, Lahore 54590, Pakistan"}]},{"given":"Liangliang","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Water Conservancy & Civil Engineering, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China"}]},{"given":"Samira","family":"Sadri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Water Resources Engineering, Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz, Ahvaz 6135783151, Iran"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5974-0909","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Muhammad Ahmad","family":"Niaz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science, Islamia University, Bahawalpur 63100, Pakistan"}]},{"given":"Ahsan","family":"Jamil","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, New Mexico State University, 3170S Espina Str., Las Cruces, NM 88003, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2185-7276","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Shahid Nawaz","family":"Khan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Geospatial Sciences Center of Excellence, Department of Geography and Geospatial Sciences, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD 57007, USA"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"621","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0477(1997)078<0621:GDWFS>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Global Drought Watch from Space","volume":"78","author":"Kogan","year":"1997","journal-title":"Bull. 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