{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,20]],"date-time":"2026-01-20T04:43:58Z","timestamp":1768884238712,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":73,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,14]],"date-time":"2023-02-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1676332800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Natural Science Foundation of Hainan Province, China","award":["420QN258"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["420QN258"]}]},{"name":"Natural Science Foundation of Hainan Province, China","award":["421QN234"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["421QN234"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Coastal wetlands are located at the intersection of land and sea and provide extremely important ecological services. The coastal wetlands of estuarine harbors are representative parts of the coastal wetlands. Changes that occur in estuarine harbor wetlands are microcosms of the changes occurring in the coastal wetlands more generally. The coastal wetlands of Hainan Island, China, are coastal wetlands typical of tropical islands and are extremely sensitive to climate change. In the context of global sea level rise, studying the characteristics of spatial and temporal distribution of coastal wetlands on Hainan Island, as well as changes in their vulnerability, could provide scientific and technological support to address the adverse effects of climate change. Using nine typical estuarine harbor wetlands as target areas, this study systematically studies the spatial\u2013temporal evolution of coastal wetlands on Hainan Island from 1990 to 2020. The results suggest the following: (1) The total area of coastal wetlands has remained relatively stable, but the area of artificial wetlands, especially aquaculture ponds, has increased significantly. There is a clear spatial variability in the changes in mangrove wetlands, with a clear increase in the area of areas with a high degree of protection, such as Dongzhai Harbor (DZG). The area of the areas with a high intensity of human activity has been significantly reduced, such as Bamen Bay (BMG). (2) The overall ecological risk of coastal wetlands is low, with the average wetland risk index (WRI) of all harbors being below 0.15. The higher the degree of protection, the lower the ecological risk of the area, such as DZG. Human activities are the main factor causing increased ecological risk in wetlands. (3) Climate-change-induced sea level rise and the intensification of human activities are the main determinants of future trends in the spatial distribution of coastal wetlands and wetland ecosystem stability. The results of this study provide guidance on the conservation and restoration of coastal wetlands.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs15041035","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,15]],"date-time":"2023-02-15T01:38:18Z","timestamp":1676425098000},"page":"1035","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":20,"title":["Spatial\u2013Temporal Evolution Monitoring and Ecological Risk Assessment of Coastal Wetlands on Hainan Island, China"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8995-5177","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Haiyan","family":"Chen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Geography and Environmental Science, Hainan Normal University, Haikou 571158, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Earth Surface Processes and Environmental Change of Tropical Islands, Haikou 571158, China"}]},{"given":"Dalong","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Geography and Environmental Science, Hainan Normal University, Haikou 571158, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Earth Surface Processes and Environmental Change of Tropical Islands, Haikou 571158, China"}]},{"given":"Yaning","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Desert and Oasis Ecology, Xinjiang Institute of Ecology and Geography, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Urumqi 830011, China"}]},{"given":"Zhizhong","family":"Zhao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Geography and Environmental Science, Hainan Normal University, Haikou 571158, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Earth Surface Processes and Environmental Change of Tropical Islands, Haikou 571158, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1038\/nature12856","article-title":"Tidal wetland stability in the face of human impacts and sea-level rise","volume":"504","author":"Kirwan","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16094","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms16094","article-title":"Potential increase in coastal wetland vulnerability to sea-level rise suggested by considering hydrodynamic attenuation effects","volume":"8","author":"Rodriguez","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eabj1569","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.abj1569","article-title":"China\u2019s little-known efforts to protect its marine ecosystems safeguard some habitats but omit others","volume":"7","author":"Bohorquez","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Adv."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"552","DOI":"10.1890\/110004","article-title":"A blueprint for blue carbon: Toward an improved understanding of the role of vegetated coastal habitats in sequestering CO2","volume":"9","author":"McLeod","year":"2011","journal-title":"Front. Ecol. Environ."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"nwaa296","DOI":"10.1093\/nsr\/nwaa296","article-title":"Global blue carbon accumulation in tidal wetlands increases with climate change","volume":"8","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Natl. Sci. Rev."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113171","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2022.113047","article-title":"Detection and characterization of coastal tidal wetland change in the northeastern US using Landsat time series","volume":"276","author":"Yang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6373","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-022-33962-x","article-title":"Drivers of global mangrove loss and gain in social-ecological systems","volume":"13","author":"Hagger","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"222","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-018-0805-8","article-title":"The global distribution and trajectory of tidal flats","volume":"565","author":"Murray","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4260","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-020-18118-z","article-title":"Quantifying net loss of global mangrove carbon stocks from 20 years of land cover change","volume":"11","author":"Richards","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"393","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-020-2591-3","article-title":"The causes of sea-level rise since 1900","volume":"584","author":"Frederikse","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"966","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-022-28564-6","article-title":"Timing of emergence of modern rates of sea-level rise by 1863","volume":"13","author":"Walker","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"744","DOI":"10.1126\/science.abm9583","article-title":"High-resolution mapping of losses and gains of Earth\u2019s tidal wetlands","volume":"376","author":"Murray","year":"2022","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guo, M., Li, J., Sheng, C., Xu, J., and Wu, L. (2017). A Review of Wetland Remote Sensing. Remote Sens., 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/s17040777"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pham, T.D., Yokoya, N., Bui, D.T., Yoshino, K., and Friess, D.A. (2019). Remote Sensing Approaches for Monitoring Mangrove Species, Structure, and Biomass: Opportunities and Challenges. Remote Sens., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11030230"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107906","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolind.2021.107906","article-title":"Monitoring the coastal wetlands dynamics in Northeast Italy from 1984 to 2016","volume":"129","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ecol. Indic."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dang, A.T.N., Kumar, L., Reid, M., and Nguyen, H. (2021). Remote Sensing Approach for Monitoring Coastal Wetland in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam: Change Trends and Their Driving Forces. Remote Sens., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13173359"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"He, K., Zhang, Y., Li, W., Sun, G., and McNulty, S. (2022). Detecting Coastal Wetland Degradation by Combining Remote Sensing and Hydrologic Modeling. Forests, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/f13030411"},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"88","article-title":"Monitoring mangrove forest change in China from 1990 to 2015 using Landsat-derived spectral-temporal variability metrics","volume":"73","author":"Hu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf."},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"535","article-title":"Monitoring loss and recovery of mangrove forests during 42 years: The achievements of mangrove conservation in China","volume":"73","author":"Jia","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e01613","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gecco.2021.e01613","article-title":"Identifying variable changes in wetlands and their anthropogenic threats bordering the Yellow Sea for water bird conservation","volume":"27","author":"Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"Glob. Ecol. Conserv."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, C., Feng, J., Wang, C., Mao, L., and Zhang, Y. (2022). Satellite-Based Monitoring of Coastal Wetlands in Yancheng, Jiangsu Province, China. J. Mar. Sci. Eng., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/jmse10060829"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s13157-022-01537-7","article-title":"Reclamation and Ecological Service Value Evaluation of Coastal Wetlands Using Multispectral Satellite Imagery","volume":"42","author":"Yan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Wetlands"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11495","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-15774-7","article-title":"Adaptive response of Dongzhaigang mangrove in China to future sea level rise","volume":"12","author":"Cai","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2016.04.026","article-title":"Mapping spatial distribution and biomass of coastal wetland vegetation in Indonesian Papua by combining active and passive remotely sensed data","volume":"183","author":"Aslan","year":"2016","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, A., Sun, G., Ma, P., Jia, X., Ren, J., Huang, H., and Zhang, X. (2019). Coastal Wetland Mapping with Sentinel-2 MSI Imagery Based on Gravitational Optimized Multilayer Perceptron and Morphological Attribute Profiles. Remote Sens., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11080952"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8208","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTARS.2021.3104164","article-title":"Collaborative Coupled Hyperspectral Unmixing Based Subpixel Change Detection for Analyzing Coastal Wetlands","volume":"14","author":"Chang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ieee J. Sel. Top. Appl. Earth Obs. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, J., Li, P., Tu, C., Wang, H., Zhou, Z., Feng, Z., Shen, F., and Li, Z. (2022). Spatiotemporal Change Detection of Coastal Wetlands Using Multi-Band SAR Coherence and Synergetic Classification. Remote Sens., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14112610"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yuan, Y., Meng, X., Sun, W., Yang, G., Wang, L., Peng, J., and Wang, Y. (2022). Multi-Resolution Collaborative Fusion of SAR, Multispectral and Hyperspectral Images for Coastal Wetlands Mapping. Remote Sens., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14143492"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-018-0476-5","article-title":"Future response of global coastal wetlands to sea-level rise","volume":"561","author":"Schuerch","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1118","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aba2656","article-title":"Thresholds of mangrove survival under rapid sea level rise","volume":"368","author":"Saintilan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"13","article-title":"Risk assessment of climate change impacts on Mediterranean coastal wetlands. Application in Jucar River Basin District (Spain)","volume":"790","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.3389\/fmars.2022.781876","article-title":"Future Mangrove Carbon Storage Under Climate Change and Deforestation","volume":"9","author":"Chatting","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Mar. Sci."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eabo5174","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.abo5174","article-title":"Migration and transformation of coastal wetlands in response to rising seas","volume":"8","author":"Osland","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Adv."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"685","DOI":"10.1038\/s41558-022-01391-9","article-title":"Mangrove dispersal disrupted by projected changes in global seawater density","volume":"12","author":"Vanschoenwinkel","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Clim. Change"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108032","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolind.2021.108032","article-title":"Ecological stability evaluation of tidal flat in coastal estuary: A case study of Liaohe estuary wetland, China","volume":"130","author":"Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ecol. Indic."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"154535","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2022.154535","article-title":"An evaluating system for wetland ecological risk: Case study in coastal mainland China","volume":"828","author":"Duan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fu, C., Song, X.Q., Xie, Y., Wang, C., Luo, J.B., Fang, Y., Cao, B., and Qiu, Z.X. (2022). Research on the Spatiotemporal Evolution of Mangrove Forests in the Hainan Island from 1991 to 2021 Based on SVM and Res-UNet Algorithms. Remote Sens., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14215554"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4026","DOI":"10.3390\/rs70404026","article-title":"Evaluating Multispectral Images and Vegetation Indices for Precision Farming Applications from UAV Images","volume":"7","author":"Candiago","year":"2015","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(96)00067-3","article-title":"NDWI\u2014A normalized difference water index for remote sensing of vegetation liquid water from space","volume":"58","author":"Gao","year":"1996","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3025","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160600589179","article-title":"Modification of normalised difference water index (NDWI) to enhance open water features in remotely sensed imagery","volume":"27","author":"Xu","year":"2006","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1129","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mex.2018.09.011","article-title":"An index for discrimination of mangroves from non-mangroves using LANDSAT 8 OLI imagery","volume":"5","author":"Gupta","year":"2018","journal-title":"Methodsx"},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"Matthews, G.V.T. (1993). The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands: Its History and Development, Ramsar Convention Bureau."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"859","DOI":"10.1080\/13658810903174803","article-title":"ESP: A tool to estimate scale parameter for multiresolution image segmentation of remotely sensed data","volume":"24","author":"Dragut","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Geogr. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2013.11.018","article-title":"Automated parameterisation for multi-scale image segmentation on multiple layers","volume":"88","author":"Dragut","year":"2014","journal-title":"ISPRS-J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(01)00295-4","article-title":"Status of land cover classification accuracy assessment","volume":"80","author":"Foody","year":"2002","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106677","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolind.2020.106677","article-title":"Ecological risk assessment of the wetlands in Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei urban agglomeration","volume":"117","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ecol. Indic."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1076","DOI":"10.1038\/s41893-021-00793-5","article-title":"Rebound in China\u2019s coastal wetlands following conservation and restoration","volume":"4","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Sustain."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, Y., Wen, H., and Wang, F. (2023). Analysis of the Evolution of Mangrove Landscape Patterns and Their Drivers in Hainan Island from 2000 to 2020. Sustainability, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/su15010759"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liao, J.J., Zhen, J.N., Zhang, L., and Metternicht, G. (2019). Understanding Dynamics of Mangrove Forest on Protected Areas of Hainan Island, China: 30 Years of Evidence from Remote Sensing. Sustainability, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/su11195356"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e01797","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gecco.2021.e01797","article-title":"Satellite derived coastal reclamation expansion in China since the 21st century","volume":"30","author":"Jiang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Glob. Ecol. Conserv."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106531","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecss.2019.106531","article-title":"Decadal trends in mangrove and pond aquaculture cover on Hainan (China) since 1966: Mangrove loss, fragmentation and associated biogeochemical changes","volume":"233","author":"Herbeck","year":"2020","journal-title":"Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ocecoaman.2021.105897","article-title":"Spatio-temporal patterns and sustainable development of coastal aquaculture in Hainan Island, China: 30 Years of evidence from remote sensing","volume":"214","author":"Fu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ocean. Coast. Manag."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jia, P.H., Huang, W.D., Zhang, Z.Y., Cheng, J.X., and Xiao, Y.L. (2022). The Carbon Sink of Mangrove Ecological Restoration between 1988\u20132020 in Qinglan Bay, Hainan Island, China. Forests, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/f13101547"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolind.2021.108135","article-title":"Combining time series and land cover data for analyzing spatio-temporal changes in mangrove forests: A case study of Qinglangang Nature Reserve, Hainan, China","volume":"131","author":"Zhu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ecol. Indic."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155826","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2022.155826","article-title":"A new deep learning approach based on bilateral semantic segmentation models for sustainable estuarine wetland ecosystem management","volume":"838","author":"Pham","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_56","first-page":"102185","article-title":"Tracking long-term floodplain wetland changes: A case study in the China side of the Amur River Basin","volume":"92","author":"Jia","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112285","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2021.112285","article-title":"Rapid, robust, and automated mapping of tidal flats in China using time series Sentinel-2 images and Google Earth Engine","volume":"255","author":"Jia","year":"2021","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tian, Y., Jia, M., Wang, Z., Mao, D., Du, B., and Wang, C. (2020). Monitoring Invasion Process of Spartina alterniflora by Seasonal Sentinel-2 Imagery and an Object-Based Random Forest Classification. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12091383"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-021-03427-0","article-title":"The Paris Climate Agreement and future sea-level rise from Antarctica","volume":"593","author":"DeConto","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106248","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ocecoaman.2022.106248","article-title":"Valuation of long-term coastal wetland changes in the U.S","volume":"226","author":"Fant","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ocean. Coast. Manag."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2022.155679","article-title":"Accelerated migration of mangroves indicate large-scale saltwater intrusion in Amazon coastal wetlands","volume":"836","author":"Visschers","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104957","DOI":"10.1016\/j.landusepol.2020.104957","article-title":"Land use changes in the coastal zone of China\u2019s Hebei Province and the corresponding impacts on habitat quality","volume":"99","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Land Use Policy"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chu, L.X., Oloo, F., Chen, B., Xie, M.M., and Blaschke, T. (2020). Assessing the Influence of Tourism-Driven Activities on Environmental Variables on Hainan Island, China. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12172813"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101423","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoser.2022.101423","article-title":"Opportunities for coastal wetland restoration for blue carbon with co-benefits for biodiversity, coastal fisheries, and water quality","volume":"55","author":"Hagger","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ecosyst. Serv."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2620","DOI":"10.1002\/eap.2620","article-title":"Climate change mitigation and improvement of water quality from the restoration of a subtropical coastal wetland","volume":"32","author":"Iram","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ecol. Appl."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aljahdali, M.O., Munawar, S., and Khan, W.R. (2021). Monitoring Mangrove Forest Degradation and Regeneration: Landsat Time Series Analysis of Moisture and Vegetation Indices at Rabigh Lagoon, Red Sea. Forests, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/f12010052"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecss.2020.107128","article-title":"Evaluating mangrove conservation and sustainability through spatiotemporal (1990-2020) mangrove cover change analysis in Pakistan","volume":"249","author":"Gilani","year":"2021","journal-title":"Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107467","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecss.2021.107467","article-title":"Effects of diverse mangrove management practices on forest structure, carbon dynamics and sedimentation in North Sumatra, Indonesia","volume":"259","author":"Hanggara","year":"2021","journal-title":"Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Conner, W., Whitmire, S., Duberstein, J., Stalter, R., and Baden, J. (2022). Changes within a South Carolina Coastal Wetland Forest in the Face of Rising Sea Level. Forests, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/f13030414"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106272","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoleng.2021.106272","article-title":"Factors influencing mangrove forest recruitment in rehabilitated aquaculture ponds","volume":"168","author":"Xiong","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ecol. Eng."},{"key":"ref_71","first-page":"e03185","article-title":"Ecohydrology of wetland plant communities along an estuarine to tidal river gradient","volume":"11","author":"BORDE","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ecoshpere"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eabi8943","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.abi8943","article-title":"An invasive species erodes the performance of coastal wetland protected areas","volume":"7","author":"Ren","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Adv."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151712","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2021.151712","article-title":"Biodiversity impacts by multiple anthropogenic stressors in Mediterranean coastal wetlands","volume":"818","author":"Rico","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/15\/4\/1035\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T18:35:13Z","timestamp":1760121313000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/15\/4\/1035"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,14]]},"references-count":73,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,2]]}},"alternative-id":["rs15041035"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs15041035","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,14]]}}}