{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,29]],"date-time":"2026-03-29T06:25:22Z","timestamp":1774765522842,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":33,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,18]],"date-time":"2023-02-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1676678400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["U2241275"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["U2241275"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["61827814"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["61827814"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["Z190018"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Z190018"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["52-L10D01-0613-20\/22"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["52-L10D01-0613-20\/22"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004826","name":"Beijing Natural Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["U2241275"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["U2241275"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004826","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004826","name":"Beijing Natural Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["61827814"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["61827814"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004826","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004826","name":"Beijing Natural Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["Z190018"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Z190018"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004826","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004826","name":"Beijing Natural Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["52-L10D01-0613-20\/22"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["52-L10D01-0613-20\/22"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004826","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"China High-resolution Earth Observation System Project","award":["U2241275"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["U2241275"]}]},{"name":"China High-resolution Earth Observation System Project","award":["61827814"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["61827814"]}]},{"name":"China High-resolution Earth Observation System Project","award":["Z190018"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Z190018"]}]},{"name":"China High-resolution Earth Observation System Project","award":["52-L10D01-0613-20\/22"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["52-L10D01-0613-20\/22"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Due to the complexity of airborne remote sensing scenes, strong background and noise interference, positive and negative sample imbalance, and multiple ship scales, ship detection is a critical and challenging task in remote sensing. This work proposes an end-to-end anchor-free oriented ship detector (AF-OSD) framework based on a multi-scale dense-point rotation Gaussian heatmap (MDP-RGH) to tackle these aforementioned challenges. First, to solve the sample imbalance problem and suppress the interference of negative samples such as background and noise, the oriented ship is modeled via the proposed MDP-RGH according to its shape and direction to generate ship labels with more accurate information, while the imbalance between positive and negative samples is adaptively learned for the ships with different scales. Then, the AF-OSD based on MDP-RGH is further devised to detect the multi-scale oriented ship, which is the accurate identification and information extraction for multi-scale vessels. Finally, a multi-task object size adaptive loss function is designed to guide the training process, improving its detection quality and performance for multi-scale oriented ships. Simulation results show that extensive experiments on HRSC2016 and DOTA ship datasets reveal that the proposed method achieves significantly outperforms the compared state-of-the-art methods.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs15041120","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,20]],"date-time":"2023-02-20T01:36:37Z","timestamp":1676856997000},"page":"1120","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":13,"title":["AF-OSD: An Anchor-Free Oriented Ship Detector Based on Multi-Scale Dense-Point Rotation Gaussian Heatmap"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3433-4549","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zizheng","family":"Hua","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Optics and Photonic, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100811, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1008-5717","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gaofeng","family":"Pan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Cyberspace Science and Technology, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100811, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6666-8036","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kun","family":"Gao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Optics and Photonic, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100811, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9735-570X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hengchao","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Information Science and Technology, Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu 610032, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3871-3407","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Su","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Optics and Photonic, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100811, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"641","DOI":"10.1109\/LGRS.2013.2273552","article-title":"Ship Detection From Optical Satellite Images Based on Sea Surface Analysis","volume":"11","author":"Yang","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Geosci. 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