{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,4]],"date-time":"2026-03-04T17:08:24Z","timestamp":1772644104224,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":58,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,22]],"date-time":"2023-02-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1677024000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Kyushu Institute of Technology SPRING Scholarship Awardee"},{"name":"University Fellowship Founding Project for Innovation Creation in Science and Technology Fellowship Program"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Autonomous driving has received enormous attention from the academic and industrial communities. However, achieving full driving autonomy is not a trivial task, because of the complex and dynamic driving environment. Perception ability is a tough challenge for autonomous driving, while 3D object detection serves as a breakthrough for providing precise and dependable 3D geometric information. Inspired by practical driving experiences of human experts, a pure visual scheme takes sufficient responsibility for safe and stable autonomous driving. In this paper, we proposed an anchor-free and keypoint-based 3D object detector with monocular vision, named Keypoint3D. We creatively leveraged 2D projected points from 3D objects\u2019 geometric centers as keypoints for object modeling. Additionally, for precise keypoints positioning, we utilized a novel self-adapting ellipse Gaussian filter (saEGF) on heatmaps, considering different objects\u2019 shapes. We tried different variations of DLA-34 backbone and proposed a semi-aggregation DLA-34 (SADLA-34) network, which pruned the redundant aggregation branch but achieved better performance. Keypoint3D regressed the yaw angle in a Euclidean space, which resulted in a closed mathematical space avoiding singularities. Numerous experiments on the KITTI dataset for a moderate level have proven that Keypoint3D achieved the best speed-accuracy trade-off with an average precision of 39.1% at 18.9 FPS on 3D cars detection.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs15051210","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,23]],"date-time":"2023-02-23T01:31:06Z","timestamp":1677115866000},"page":"1210","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":16,"title":["Keypoint3D: Keypoint-Based and Anchor-Free 3D Object Detection for Autonomous Driving with Monocular Vision"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4814-4225","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zhen","family":"Li","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Graduate School of Engineering, Kyushu Institute of Technology, Kitakyushu 804-0015, Japan"}]},{"given":"Yuliang","family":"Gao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Graduate School of Engineering, Kyushu Institute of Technology, Kitakyushu 804-0015, Japan"}]},{"given":"Qingqing","family":"Hong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Artificial Intelligence, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225012, China"}]},{"given":"Yuren","family":"Du","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Artificial Intelligence, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225012, China"}]},{"given":"Seiichi","family":"Serikawa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Graduate School of Engineering, Kyushu Institute of Technology, Kitakyushu 804-0015, Japan"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7528-8051","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lifeng","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Graduate School of Engineering, Kyushu Institute of Technology, Kitakyushu 804-0015, Japan"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3782","DOI":"10.1109\/TITS.2019.2892405","article-title":"A survey on 3D object detection methods for autonomous driving applications","volume":"20","author":"Arnold","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. 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