{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,9]],"date-time":"2026-04-09T23:07:26Z","timestamp":1775776046508,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":52,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,15]],"date-time":"2023-03-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1678838400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Zhejiang Provincial Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["LTGG23E080008"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["LTGG23E080008"]}]},{"name":"Zhejiang Provincial Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["Y202147608"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Y202147608"]}]},{"name":"Scientific Research Fund of the Zhejiang Provincial Education Department","award":["LTGG23E080008"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["LTGG23E080008"]}]},{"name":"Scientific Research Fund of the Zhejiang Provincial Education Department","award":["Y202147608"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Y202147608"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The work performance of stereo digital image correlation (stereo-DIC) technologies, especially the operating accuracy and reliability in field applications, is not fully understood. In this study, the key technologies of the field remote 3D displacement sensing of civil structures based on stereo-DIC have been proposed. An image correlation algorithm is incorporated in improving the matching accuracy of control points. An adaptive stereo-DIC extrinsic parameter calibration method is developed by fusing epipolar-geometry-based and homography-based methods. Furthermore, a reliable reference frame that does not require artificial markers is established based on Euclidean transformation, which facilitates in-plane and out-of-plane displacement monitoring for civil structures. Moreover, a camera motion correction is introduced by considering background points according to the camera motion model. With an experiment, the feasibility and accuracy of the proposed system are validated. Moreover, the system is applied to sense the dynamic operating displacement of a 2 MW wind turbine\u2019s blades. The results show the potential capability of the proposed stereo-DIC system in remote capturing the full-field 3D dynamic responses and health status of large-scale structures.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs15061591","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,15]],"date-time":"2023-03-15T04:39:45Z","timestamp":1678855185000},"page":"1591","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["Remote 3D Displacement Sensing for Large Structures with Stereo Digital Image Correlation"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Weiwu","family":"Feng","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Zhejiang University of Water Resources and Electric Power, Hangzhou 310018, China"}]},{"given":"Qiang","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Zhejiang University of Water Resources and Electric Power, Hangzhou 310018, China"}]},{"given":"Wenxue","family":"Du","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Zhejiang University of Water Resources and Electric Power, Hangzhou 310018, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6432-3579","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dongsheng","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Shanghai Key Laboratory of Mechanics in Energy Engineering, Shanghai Institute of Applied Mathematics and Mechanics, School of Mechanics and Engineering Science, Shanghai University, Shanghai 200444, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, D., Yu, Z., Xu, Y., Ding, L., Ding, H., Yu, Q., and Su, Z. (2022). GNSS aided long-range 3D displacement sensing for high-rise structures with two non-overlapping cameras. Remote Sens., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14020379"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111545","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2022.111545","article-title":"3D deformation monitoring method for temporary structures based on multi-thread LiDAR point cloud","volume":"200","author":"Luo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shen, N., Chen, L., Liu, J., Wang, L., Tao, T., Wu, D., and Chen, R. (2019). A review of global navigation satellite system (GNSS)-based dynamic monitoring technologies for structural health monitoring. Remote Sens., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11091001"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1080\/15732479.2019.1650078","article-title":"Structural displacement monitoring using deep learning-based full field optical flow methods","volume":"16","author":"Dong","year":"2020","journal-title":"Struct. Infrastruct. Eng."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Entezami, A., Arslan, A.N., De Michele, C., and Behkamal, B. (2022). Online hybrid learning methods for real-time structural health monitoring using remote sensing and small displacement data. Remote Sens., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14143357"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, G., He, C., Zou, C., and Wang, A. (2022). Displacement measurement based on UAV images using SURF-enhanced camera calibration algorithm. Remote Sens., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14236008"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tian, L., Ding, T., and Pan, B. (2022). Generalized scale factor calibration method for an off-axis digital image correlation-based video deflectometer. Sensors, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/s222410010"},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"607","article-title":"Development of monocular video deflectometer based on inclination sensors","volume":"25","author":"Wang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Smart Struct. Syst."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106823","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engfailanal.2022.106823","article-title":"Deformation and failure mechanism of horizontal soft and hard interlayered rock under uniaxial compression based on digital image correlation method","volume":"142","author":"Luo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Eng. Fail. Anal."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bardakov, V.V., Marchenkov, A.Y., Poroykov, A.Y., Machikhin, A.S., Sharikova, M.O., and Meleshko, N.V. (2021). Feasibility of digital image correlation for fatigue cracks detection under dynamic loading. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21196457"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.2140\/jomms.2011.6.181","article-title":"Diagnosis of concrete dams by flat-jack tests and inverse analyses based on proper orthogonal decomposition","volume":"6","author":"Garbowski","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Mech. Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"170","DOI":"10.1016\/j.acme.2013.05.012","article-title":"Calibration of concrete parameters based on digital image correlation and inverse analysis","volume":"14","author":"Gajewski","year":"2014","journal-title":"Arch. Civ. Mech. Eng."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Gajewski, T., and Garbowski, T. (2013, January 27\u201331). Mixed experimental\/numerical methods applied for concrete parameters estimation. Proceedings of the 20th International Conference on Computer Methods in Mechanics (CMM2013), Pozna\u0144, Poland."},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"383","article-title":"Mechanical characterization of orthotropic elastic parameters of a foam by the mixed experimental-numerical analysis","volume":"53","author":"Gajewski","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Theor. App. Mech."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1007\/s00158-011-0747-3","article-title":"On calibration of orthotropic elastic-plastic constitutive models for paper foils by biaxial tests and inverse analyses","volume":"46","author":"Garbowski","year":"2012","journal-title":"Struct. Multidiscip. Optim."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Garbowski, T., Grabski, J.K., and Marek, A. (2021). Full-field measurements in the edge crush test of a corrugated board\u2014Analytical and numerical predictive models. Materials, 14.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202105.0388.v1"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Garbowski, T., Knitter-Pi\u0105tkowska, A., and Marek, A. (2021). New edge crush test configuration enhanced with full-field strain measurements. Materials, 14.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202109.0019.v1"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12219","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.392248","article-title":"Geometry constrained correlation adjustment for stereo reconstruction in 3D optical deformation measurements","volume":"28","author":"Su","year":"2020","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Seo, S., Ko, Y., and Chung, M. (2022). Evaluation of field applicability of high-Speed 3D digital image correlation for shock vibration measurement in underground mining. Remote Sens., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14133133"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1067","DOI":"10.1007\/s11340-017-0349-0","article-title":"DIC challenge: Developing images and guidelines for evaluating accuracy and resolution of 2D analyses","volume":"58","author":"Reu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Exp. Mech."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106789","DOI":"10.1016\/j.optlaseng.2021.106789","article-title":"A practical extrinsic calibration method for joint depth and color sensors","volume":"149","author":"Xu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Opt. Laser. Eng."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1330","DOI":"10.1109\/34.888718","article-title":"A flexible new technique for camera calibration","volume":"22","author":"Zhang","year":"2000","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xu, X., Liu, M., Peng, S., Ma, Y., Zhao, H., and Xu, A. (2022). An in-orbit stereo navigation camera self-calibration method for planetary rovers with multiple constraints. Remote Sens., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14020402"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.1007\/s11340-013-9794-6","article-title":"CAD-based calibration and shape measurement with stereoDIC","volume":"54","author":"Beaubier","year":"2014","journal-title":"Exp. Mech."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9563","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.55.009563","article-title":"Method for large-range structured light system calibration","volume":"55","author":"An","year":"2016","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109999","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2021.109999","article-title":"Stereo camera calibration for large field of view digital image correlation using zoom lens","volume":"185","author":"Gao","year":"2021","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106854","DOI":"10.1016\/j.optlaseng.2021.106854","article-title":"Calibrating large-FOV stereo digital image correlation system using phase targets and epipolar geometry","volume":"150","author":"Chen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Opt. Laser. Eng."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2014.11.027","article-title":"A novel and accurate calibration method for cameras with large field of view using combined small targets","volume":"64","author":"Liu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105919","DOI":"10.1016\/j.optlaseng.2019.105919","article-title":"Camera calibration using synthetic random speckle pattern and digital image correlation","volume":"126","author":"Chen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Opt. Laser. Eng."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2018.06.022","article-title":"Three-dimensional digital image correlation with improved efficiency and accuracy","volume":"128","author":"Zhong","year":"2018","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106786","DOI":"10.1016\/j.optlaseng.2021.106786","article-title":"Mirror-assisted multi-view digital image correlation: Principles, applications and implementations","volume":"149","author":"Chen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Opt. Laser. Eng."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37987","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.443198","article-title":"Online stereo vision measurement based on correction of sensor structural parameters","volume":"29","author":"Shi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"587","article-title":"Flexible camera series network for deformation measurement of large scale structures","volume":"24","author":"Yu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Smart Struct. Syst."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2761","DOI":"10.1002\/stc.2761","article-title":"Displacement measurement and nonlinear structural system identification: A vision-based approach with camera motion correction using planar structures","volume":"28","author":"Jiao","year":"2021","journal-title":"Struct. Control Health Monit."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106651","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymssp.2020.106651","article-title":"Long-term displacement measurement of full-scale bridges using camera ego-motion compensation","volume":"140","author":"Lee","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mech. Syst. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, R., Li, Z., Zhong, K., Liu, X., Wu, Y., Wang, C., and Shi, Y. (2019). A stereo-vision system for measuring the ram speed of steam hammers in an environment with a large field of view and strong vibrations. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19050996"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1993","DOI":"10.1016\/j.prostr.2018.12.218","article-title":"Robust reference system for digital image correlation camera recalibration in fieldwork","volume":"13","author":"Barros","year":"2018","journal-title":"Procedia Struct. Integr."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"B4016013","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)IS.1943-555X.0000348","article-title":"Video camera\u2013based vibrations measurement for civil infrastructure applications","volume":"23","author":"Chen","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Infrastruct. Syst."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abolhasannejad, V., Huang, X., and Namazi, N. (2018). Developing an optical image-based method for bridge deformation measurement considering camera motion. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18092754"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1111\/mice.12338","article-title":"Structural displacement measurement using an unmanned aerial system","volume":"33","author":"Yoon","year":"2018","journal-title":"Comput.-Aided Civ. Inf."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6107","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.451263","article-title":"Robust and accuracy calibration method for a binocular camera using a coding planar target","volume":"30","author":"Yin","year":"2022","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"Zisserman, R.H.A. (2003). Multiple View Geometry in Computer Vision, Cambridge University Press."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pastucha, E., Puniach, E., \u015acis\u0142owicz, A., \u0106wi\u0105ka\u0142a, P., Niewiem, W., and Wi\u0105cek, P. (2020). 3D reconstruction of power lines using uav images to monitor corridor clearance. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12223698"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18839","DOI":"10.1007\/s11042-021-10646-0","article-title":"2D object recognition: A comparative analysis of SIFT, SURF and ORB feature descriptors","volume":"80","author":"Bansal","year":"2021","journal-title":"Multimed. Tools Appl."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107214","DOI":"10.1016\/j.optlaseng.2022.107214","article-title":"A novel rotated sigmoid weight function for higher performance in heterogeneous deformation measurement with digital image correlation","volume":"159","author":"Ye","year":"2022","journal-title":"Opt. Laser. Eng."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1111\/str.12066","article-title":"An evaluation of convergence criteria for digital image correlation using inverse compositional Gauss\u2013Newton algorithm","volume":"50","author":"Pan","year":"2014","journal-title":"Strain"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"580","DOI":"10.1109\/34.601246","article-title":"In defense of the eight-point algorithm","volume":"19","author":"Hartley","year":"1997","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169192","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijleo.2022.169192","article-title":"A calibration method for line-structured light system by using sinusoidal fringes and homography matrix","volume":"261","author":"Ping","year":"2022","journal-title":"Optik"},{"key":"ref_49","first-page":"4793","article-title":"Deep Hough transform for semantic line detection","volume":"44","author":"Zhao","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107377","DOI":"10.1016\/j.patcog.2020.107377","article-title":"Non-rigid infrared and visible image registration by enhanced affine transformation","volume":"106","author":"Min","year":"2020","journal-title":"Pattern Recogn."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"470","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymssp.2019.05.031","article-title":"Health monitoring of wind turbine blades in operation using three-dimensional digital image correlation","volume":"130","author":"Wu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mech. Syst. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2930","DOI":"10.1002\/stc.2930","article-title":"Real-time illumination adjustment for video deflectometers","volume":"29","author":"Yang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Struct. Control Health Monit."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/15\/6\/1591\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T18:55:31Z","timestamp":1760122531000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/15\/6\/1591"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,15]]},"references-count":52,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,3]]}},"alternative-id":["rs15061591"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs15061591","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,15]]}}}