{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,6]],"date-time":"2026-03-06T05:13:06Z","timestamp":1772773986763,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":83,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,16]],"date-time":"2023-03-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1678924800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000104","name":"NASA","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["SURP-2020-018"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SURP-2020-018"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000104","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000104","name":"NASA","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["80NM0018D0004"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["80NM0018D0004"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000104","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"ASU Gilbert F. White Environment and Society Fellowship","award":["SURP-2020-018"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SURP-2020-018"]}]},{"name":"ASU Gilbert F. White Environment and Society Fellowship","award":["80NM0018D0004"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["80NM0018D0004"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100006196","name":"the National Aeronautics and Space Administration","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["SURP-2020-018"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SURP-2020-018"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100006196","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100006196","name":"the National Aeronautics and Space Administration","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["80NM0018D0004"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["80NM0018D0004"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100006196","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Arizona State University","award":["SURP-2020-018"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SURP-2020-018"]}]},{"name":"Arizona State University","award":["80NM0018D0004"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["80NM0018D0004"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Imaging spectroscopy is a burgeoning tool for understanding ecosystem functioning on large spatial scales, yet the application of this technology to assess intra-specific trait variation across environmental gradients has been poorly tested. Selection of specific genotypes via environmental filtering plays an important role in driving trait variation and thus functional diversity across space and time, but the relative contributions of intra-specific trait variation and species turnover are still unclear. To address this issue, we quantified the variation in reflectance spectra within and between six uniform stands of Metrosideros polymorpha across elevation and soil substrate age gradients on Hawai\u2018i Island. Airborne imaging spectroscopy and light detection and ranging (LiDAR) data were merged to capture and isolate sunlit portions of canopies at the six M. polymorpha-dominated sites. Both intra-site and inter-site spectral variations were quantified using several analyses. A support vector machine (SVM) model revealed that each site was spectrally distinct, while Euclidean distances between site centroids in principal components (PC) space indicated that elevation and soil substrate age drive the separation of canopy spectra between sites. Coefficients of variation among spectra, as well as the intrinsic spectral dimensionality of the data, demonstrated the hierarchical effect of soil substrate age, followed by elevation, in determining intra-site variation. Assessments based on leaf trait data estimated from canopy reflectance resulted in similar patterns of separation among sites in the PC space and distinction among sites in the SVM model. Using a highly polymorphic species, we demonstrated that canopy reflectance follows known ecological principles of community turnover and thus how spectral remote sensing addresses forest community assembly on large spatial scales.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs15061614","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,17]],"date-time":"2023-03-17T02:29:59Z","timestamp":1679020199000},"page":"1614","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":18,"title":["Quantifying the Variation in Reflectance Spectra of Metrosideros polymorpha Canopies across Environmental Gradients"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1945-1162","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Megan M.","family":"Seeley","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Global Discovery and Conservation Science, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85281, USA"},{"name":"School of Geographic Sciences and Urban Planning, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85281, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3509-8530","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Roberta E.","family":"Martin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Global Discovery and Conservation Science, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85281, USA"},{"name":"School of Geographic Sciences and Urban Planning, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85281, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0428-2909","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nicholas R.","family":"Vaughn","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Global Discovery and Conservation Science, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85281, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1100-7550","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"David R.","family":"Thompson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, 4800 Oak Grove Dr., Pasadena, CA 91109, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9848-6894","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jie","family":"Dai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Global Discovery and Conservation Science, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85281, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7893-6421","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gregory P.","family":"Asner","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Global Discovery and Conservation Science, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85281, USA"},{"name":"School of Geographic Sciences and Urban Planning, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85281, USA"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.2307\/3547051","article-title":"Community Assembly Rules, Morphological Dispersion, and the Coexistence of Plant Species","volume":"81","author":"Weiher","year":"1998","journal-title":"Oikos"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.2307\/3235676","article-title":"Assembly and response rules: Two goals for predictive community ecology","volume":"3","author":"Keddy","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Veg. Sci."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.1086\/282505","article-title":"The Limiting Similarity, Convergence, and Divergence of Coexisting Species","volume":"101","author":"Macarthur","year":"1967","journal-title":"Am. Nat."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"573","DOI":"10.1098\/rsbl.2008.0181","article-title":"Contemporary perspectives on the niche that can improve models of species range shifts under climate change","volume":"4","author":"Morin","year":"2003","journal-title":"Biol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1006","DOI":"10.1111\/1365-2435.12579","article-title":"Re-growing a tropical dry forest: Functional plant trait composition and community assembly during succession","volume":"30","author":"Buzzard","year":"2016","journal-title":"Funct. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1472-4642.2000.00083.x","article-title":"Naturalization and invasion of alien plants: Concepts and definitions","volume":"6","author":"Richardson","year":"2000","journal-title":"Divers. Distrib."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"798","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1466-8238.2011.00727.x","article-title":"The biogeography and filtering of woody plant functional diversity in North and South America","volume":"21","author":"Swenson","year":"2012","journal-title":"Glob. Ecol. Biogeogr."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"592","DOI":"10.1111\/1365-2435.12345","article-title":"Community assembly, coexistence and the environmental filtering metaphor","volume":"29","author":"Kraft","year":"2015","journal-title":"Funct. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"734","DOI":"10.1111\/ele.12945","article-title":"Within-species patterns challenge our understanding of the leaf economics spectrum","volume":"21","author":"Anderegg","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ecol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1441","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-017-01530-3","article-title":"Mapping functional diversity from remotely sensed morphological and physiological forest traits","volume":"8","author":"Schneider","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"604","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2745.2010.01651.x","article-title":"Intraspecific functional variability: Extent, structure and sources of variation","volume":"98","author":"Albert","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"821","DOI":"10.1038\/nature02403","article-title":"The worldwide leaf economics spectrum","volume":"428","author":"Wright","year":"2004","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1111\/1365-2435.12162","article-title":"Convergent effects of elevation on functional leaf traits within and among species","volume":"28","author":"Read","year":"2014","journal-title":"Funct. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2485","DOI":"10.1111\/gcb.14646","article-title":"Global patterns of intraspecific leaf trait responses to elevation","volume":"25","author":"Midolo","year":"2019","journal-title":"Glob. Chang. Biol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1390","DOI":"10.1111\/1365-2435.12001","article-title":"Does the leaf economic spectrum hold within local species pools across varying environmental conditions?","volume":"26","author":"Wright","year":"2012","journal-title":"Funct. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"387","DOI":"10.1007\/s00442-006-0604-z","article-title":"Genetic variation in leaf pigment, optical and photosynthetic function among diverse phenotypes of Metrosideros polymorpha grown in a common garden","volume":"151","author":"Martin","year":"2007","journal-title":"Oecologia"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2014.11.011","article-title":"Quantifying forest canopy traits: Imaging spectroscopy versus field survey","volume":"158","author":"Asner","year":"2015","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"696","DOI":"10.1111\/1365-2745.13067","article-title":"Imaging spectroscopy predicts variable distance decay across contrasting Amazonian tree communities","volume":"107","author":"Draper","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2006.11.007","article-title":"Ecological fingerprinting of ecosystem succession: Estimating secondary tropical dry forest structure and diversity using imaging spectroscopy","volume":"108","author":"Kalacska","year":"2007","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1313","DOI":"10.1002\/eap.1733","article-title":"Using imaging spectroscopy to detect variation in terrestrial ecosystem productivity across a water-stressed landscape","volume":"28","author":"DuBois","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ecol. Appl."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S78","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2008.10.018","article-title":"Characterizing canopy biochemistry from imaging spectroscopy and its application to ecosystem studies","volume":"113","author":"Kokaly","year":"2009","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3587","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2011.08.020","article-title":"Spectroscopy of canopy chemicals in humid tropical forests","volume":"115","author":"Asner","year":"2011","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E4043","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1604863113","article-title":"Large-scale climatic and geophysical controls on the leaf economics spectrum","volume":"113","author":"Asner","year":"2016","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"494","DOI":"10.1111\/nph.16711","article-title":"Foliar functional traits from imaging spectroscopy across biomes in eastern North America","volume":"228","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"New Phytol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2180","DOI":"10.1890\/14-2098.1","article-title":"Imaging spectroscopy algorithms for mapping canopy foliar chemical and morphological traits and their uncertainties","volume":"25","author":"Singh","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ecol. Appl."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2216","DOI":"10.1111\/gcb.13164","article-title":"Convergent elevation trends in canopy chemical traits of tropical forests","volume":"22","author":"Asner","year":"2016","journal-title":"Glob. Chang. Biol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1289","DOI":"10.1890\/13-1824.1","article-title":"Mapping tropical forest canopy diversity using high-fidelity imaging spectroscopy","volume":"24","author":"Asner","year":"2014","journal-title":"Ecol. Appl."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vitousek, P.M. (2004). Nutrient Cycling and Limitation: Hawai\u2018i as a Model System, Princeton University Press.","DOI":"10.1515\/9780691190341"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1192","DOI":"10.1111\/jeb.12393","article-title":"Intraspecific divergence and evolution of a life-history trade-off along a successional gradient in Hawaii\u2019s Metrosideros polymorpha","volume":"27","author":"Morrison","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Evol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"334","DOI":"10.1038\/hdy.2014.47","article-title":"Incipient radiation within the dominant Hawaiian tree Metrosideros polymorpha","volume":"113","author":"Stacy","year":"2014","journal-title":"Heredity"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"372","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00317415","article-title":"The Mauna Loa environmental matrix: Foliar and soil nutrients","volume":"89","author":"Vitousek","year":"1992","journal-title":"Oecologia"},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"1","article-title":"Soil and ecosystem development across the Hawaiian Islands","volume":"7","author":"Vitousek","year":"1997","journal-title":"GSA Today"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"242","DOI":"10.1007\/s100219900072","article-title":"Forest Productivity and Efficiency of Resource Use across a Chronosequence of Tropical Montane Soils","volume":"2","author":"Herbert","year":"1999","journal-title":"Ecosystems"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1080\/0028825X.2004.9512903","article-title":"Morphological and genetic variation within Metrosideros polymorpha (Myrtaceae) on Hawai\u2018i","volume":"42","author":"James","year":"2004","journal-title":"N. Z. J. Bot."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1515","DOI":"10.1111\/mec.14016","article-title":"The population genomic signature of environmental association and gene flow in an ecologically divergent tree species Metrosideros polymorpha (Myrtaceae)","volume":"26","author":"Izuno","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mol. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1038\/hdy.2016.40","article-title":"Genetic analysis of an ephemeral intraspecific hybrid zone in the hypervariable tree, Metrosideros polymorpha, on Hawai\u2018i Island","volume":"117","author":"Stacy","year":"2016","journal-title":"Heredity"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.2307\/2389106","article-title":"Leaf Morphology Along Environmental Gradients in Hawaiian Metrosideros polymorpha","volume":"26","author":"Joel","year":"1994","journal-title":"Biotropica"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"292","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1744-7429.2009.00491.x","article-title":"Leaf Chemical and Optical Properties of Metrosideros polymorpha across Environmental Gradients in Hawaii","volume":"41","author":"Martin","year":"2009","journal-title":"Biotropica"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"188","DOI":"10.1007\/s004420050367","article-title":"Physiological and morphological variation in Metrosideros polymorpha, a dominant Hawaiian tree species, along an altitudinal gradient: The role of phenotypic plasticity","volume":"113","author":"Cordell","year":"1998","journal-title":"Oecologia"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"709","DOI":"10.3732\/ajb.94.5.709","article-title":"Wood vessel diameter is related to elevation and genotype in the Hawaiian tree Metrosideros polymorpha (Myrtaceae)","volume":"94","author":"Fisher","year":"2007","journal-title":"Am. J. Bot."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1049","DOI":"10.1007\/s00442-015-3416-1","article-title":"A quantitative analysis of phenotypic variations of Metrosideros polymorpha within and across populations along environmental gradients on Mauna Loa, Hawaii","volume":"180","author":"Tsujii","year":"2016","journal-title":"Oecologia"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"811","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2435.1999.00381.x","article-title":"Allocation of nitrogen and carbon in leaves of Metrosideros polymorpha regulates carboxylation capacity and \u03b413C along an altitudinal gradient","volume":"13","author":"Cordell","year":"1999","journal-title":"Funct. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"695","DOI":"10.1093\/molbev\/msz259","article-title":"Divergent Selection and Primary Gene Flow Shape Incipient Speciation of a Riparian Tree on Hawaii Island","volume":"37","author":"Choi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mol. Biol. Evol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"491","DOI":"10.1006\/anbo.1996.0473","article-title":"Ecological and Genetic Implications of Foliar Polymorphism in Metrosideros polymorphaGaud. (Myrtaceae) in a Habitat Matrix on Mauna Loa, Hawaii","volume":"80","author":"Kitayama","year":"1997","journal-title":"Ann. Bot."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2215","DOI":"10.1111\/jbi.13650","article-title":"Phylogeography of the highly dispersible landscape-dominant woody species complex, Metrosideros, in Hawaii","volume":"46","author":"Stacy","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Biogeogr."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.1111\/1365-2745.13296","article-title":"Remote sensing of ploidy level in quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides Michx.)","volume":"108","author":"Blonder","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cavender-Bares, J., Meireles, J.E., Couture, J.J., Kaproth, M.A., Kingdon, C.C., Singh, A., Serbin, S.P., Center, A., Zuniga, E., and Pilz, G. (2016). Associations of Leaf Spectra with Genetic and Phylogenetic Variation in Oaks: Prospects for Remote Detection of Biodiversity. Remote Sens., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs8030221"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"194","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2013.0194","article-title":"Imaging spectroscopy links aspen genotype with below-ground processes at landscape scales","volume":"369","author":"Madritch","year":"2014","journal-title":"Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sherrod, D.R., Sinton, J.M., Watkins, S.E., and Brunt, K.M. (2023, January 04). Geologic Map of the State of Hawai\u2018i: U.S. Geologica Survey Open-File Report, Available online: http:\/\/pubs.usgs.gov\/of\/2007\/1089\/.","DOI":"10.3133\/ofr20071089"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"454","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2012.06.012","article-title":"Carnegie Airborne Observatory-2: Increasing science data dimensionality via high-fidelity multi-sensor fusion","volume":"124","author":"Asner","year":"2012","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_51","first-page":"2848","article-title":"Whats in a Satellite Albedo Product?","volume":"6","author":"Schaepman","year":"2006","journal-title":"IEEE Int. Symp. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Miller, C.J. (2002, January 16\u201318). Performance assessment of ACORN atmospheric correction algorithm. Proceedings of the Algorithms and Technologies for Multispectral, Hyperspectral, and Ultraspectral Imagery VIII, SPIE 2002, Melbourne, Australia.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.478777"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"013536","DOI":"10.1117\/1.2794018","article-title":"Carnegie Airborne Observatory: In-flight fusion of hyperspectral imaging and waveform light detection and ranging for three-dimensional studies of ecosystems","volume":"1","author":"Asner","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Appl. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1947","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jqsrt.2010.03.007","article-title":"Brightness-normalized Partial Least Squares Regression for hyperspectral data","volume":"111","author":"Feilhauer","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Quant. Spectrosc. Radiat. Transf."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1016\/0034-4257(92)90133-5","article-title":"Reflectance spectroscopy of fresh whole leaves for the estimation of chemical concentration","volume":"39","author":"Curran","year":"1992","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"523","DOI":"10.1641\/0006-3568(2004)054[0523:UISTSE]2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Using Imaging Spectroscopy to Study Ecosystem Processes and Properties","volume":"54","author":"Ustin","year":"2004","journal-title":"BioScience"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"541","DOI":"10.1002\/eap.1669","article-title":"The spatial sensitivity of the spectral diversity\u2013biodiversity relationship: An experimental test in a prairie grassland","volume":"28","author":"Wang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ecol. Appl."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9186","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.25.009186","article-title":"A large airborne survey of Earth\u2019s visible-infrared spectral dimensionality","volume":"25","author":"Thompson","year":"2017","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_59","first-page":"10","article-title":"Exploring the spectral variability of the Earth as measured by AVIRIS in 1999. Summaries of the ninth annual JPL airborne geosciences workshop","volume":"18","author":"Boardman","year":"2000","journal-title":"Jet Propuls. Lab. Spec. Publ."},{"key":"ref_60","first-page":"8","article-title":"Exploration of the relationship between information content and signal-to-noise ratio and spatial resolution in AVIRIS spectral data","volume":"7","author":"Green","year":"2000","journal-title":"Spectrum"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"044518","DOI":"10.1117\/1.JRS.16.044518","article-title":"Spectral dimensionality of imaging spectroscopy data over diverse landscapes and spatial resolutions","volume":"16","author":"Dai","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Appl. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1890\/13-0307.1","article-title":"Landscape-scale variation in plant community composition of an African savanna from airborne species mapping","volume":"24","author":"Baldeck","year":"2014","journal-title":"Ecol. Appl."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Baldeck, C.A., Asner, G.P., Martin, R.E., Anderson, C.B., Knapp, D.E., Kellner, J.R., and Wright, S.J. (2015). Operational Tree Species Mapping in a Diverse Tropical Forest with Airborne Imaging Spectroscopy. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0118403"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1593","DOI":"10.1111\/1365-2664.13632","article-title":"Spatial drivers of composition and connectivity across endangered tropical dry forests","volume":"57","author":"Balzotti","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Appl. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1530","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2004.827262","article-title":"Robust support vector method for hyperspectral data classification and knowledge discovery","volume":"42","author":"Moreno","year":"2004","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2012.2199323","article-title":"Tree Species Discrimination in Tropical Forests Using Airborne Imaging Spectroscopy","volume":"51","author":"Feret","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1778","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2004.831865","article-title":"Classification of hyperspectral remote sensing images with support vector machines","volume":"42","author":"Melgani","year":"2004","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_68","first-page":"2825","article-title":"Scikit-learn: Machine Learning in Python","volume":"12","author":"Pedregosa","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Mach. Learn. Res."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10909","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0504929102","article-title":"Ground-based and remotely sensed nutrient availability across a tropical landscape","volume":"102","author":"Porder","year":"2005","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"331","DOI":"10.1007\/s10021-017-0151-y","article-title":"Biotic and Abiotic Controls Over Canopy Function and Structure in Humid Hawaiian Forests","volume":"21","author":"Balzotti","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ecosystems"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"991","DOI":"10.1002\/j.1537-2197.1973.tb06000.x","article-title":"Altitudinal Variation in Hawaiian Metrosideros","volume":"60","author":"Corn","year":"1973","journal-title":"Am. J. Bot."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1012","DOI":"10.2307\/1940471","article-title":"Population Development of Rain Forest Trees on a Chronosequence of Hawaiian Lava Flows","volume":"74","author":"Drake","year":"1993","journal-title":"Ecology"},{"key":"ref_73","first-page":"361","article-title":"Ecological studies of Hawaiian Metrosideros in a successional context","volume":"37","author":"Stemmermann","year":"1983","journal-title":"Pac. Sci."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"565","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-8137.2009.02830.x","article-title":"Causes and consequences of variation in leaf mass per area (LMA): A meta-analysis","volume":"182","author":"Poorter","year":"2009","journal-title":"New Phytol."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.ecolsys.33.010802.150452","article-title":"Plant Ecological Strategies: Some Leading Dimensions of Variation Between Species","volume":"33","author":"Westoby","year":"2002","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3664","DOI":"10.1890\/09-2335.1","article-title":"Functional traits and the growth\u2013mortality trade-off in tropical trees","volume":"91","author":"Wright","year":"2010","journal-title":"Ecology"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1407","DOI":"10.2307\/1938144","article-title":"Changes in Soil Phosphorus Fractions and Ecosystem Dynamics across a Long Chronosequence in Hawaii","volume":"76","author":"Crews","year":"1995","journal-title":"Ecology"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"565","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00377275","article-title":"Elevational and age gradients in hawaiian montane rainforest: Foliar and soil nutrients","volume":"77","author":"Vitousek","year":"1988","journal-title":"Oecologia"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1744-7429.2007.00325.x","article-title":"Contrasting Structure and Function of Pubescent and Glabrous Varieties of Hawaiian Metrosideros polymorpha (Myrtaceae) at High Elevation","volume":"40","author":"Hoof","year":"2008","journal-title":"Biotropica"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00033454","article-title":"Vegetation changes along gradients of long-term soil development in the Hawaiian montane rainforest zone","volume":"120","author":"Kitayama","year":"1995","journal-title":"Vegetatio"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1086\/711848","article-title":"Floral Variation across Three Varieties of the Landscape-Dominant Tree Metrosideros polymorpha (Myrtaceae): Insights from a Hawaii Island Common Garden","volume":"182","author":"Stacy","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Plant Sci."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1560\/IJPS.60.1-2.9","article-title":"Estimating canopy water content from spectroscopy","volume":"60","author":"Ustin","year":"2012","journal-title":"Isr. J. Plant Sci."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1347","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2003.813205","article-title":"Application of imaging spectroscopy to mapping canopy nitrogen in the forests of the central Appalachian Mountains using Hyperion and AVIRIS","volume":"41","author":"Townsend","year":"2003","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/15\/6\/1614\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T18:56:43Z","timestamp":1760122603000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/15\/6\/1614"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,16]]},"references-count":83,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,3]]}},"alternative-id":["rs15061614"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs15061614","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,16]]}}}