{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,3]],"date-time":"2026-07-03T23:41:41Z","timestamp":1783122101178,"version":"3.54.6"},"reference-count":97,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,21]],"date-time":"2023-03-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1679356800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) LandCarbon Program, Ecosystems Mission Area, Land Change Science Program, Land Management Research Program, and National Land Imaging Program","award":["W912HZ2020070"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["W912HZ2020070"]}]},{"name":"NASA-JPL Delta-X Mission","award":["W912HZ2020070"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["W912HZ2020070"]}]},{"name":"U.S. Army Engineering, Research and Development Center","award":["W912HZ2020070"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["W912HZ2020070"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Accurate assessments of greenhouse gas emissions and carbon sequestration in natural ecosystems are necessary to develop climate mitigation strategies. Regional and national-level assessments of carbon sequestration require high-resolution data to be available for large areas, increasing the need for remote sensing products that quantify carbon stocks and fluxes. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) provides guidelines on how to quantify carbon flux using land cover land change and biomass carbon stock information. Net primary productivity (NPP), carbon uptake, and storage in vegetation, can also be used to model net carbon sequestration and net carbon export from an ecosystem (net ecosystem carbon balance). While biomass and NPP map products for terrestrial ecosystems are available, there are currently no conterminous United States (CONUS) biomass carbon stock or NPP maps for tidal herbaceous marshes. In this study, we used peak soil adjusted vegetation index (SAVI) values, derived from Landsat 8 composites, and five other vegetation indices, plus a categorical variable for the CONUS region (Pacific Northwest, California, Northeast, Mid-Atlantic, South Atlantic-Gulf, or Everglades), to model spatially explicit aboveground peak biomass stocks in tidal marshes (i.e., tidal palustrine and estuarine herbaceous marshes) for the first time. Tidal marsh carbon conversion factors, root-to-shoot ratios, and vegetation turnover rates, were compiled from the literature and used to convert peak aboveground biomass to peak total (above- and belowground) biomass and NPP. An extensive literature search for aboveground turnover rates produced sparse and variable values; therefore, we used an informed assumption of a turnover rate of one crop per year for all CONUS tidal marshes. Due to the lack of turnover rate data, the NPP map is identical to the peak biomass carbon stock map. In reality, it is probable that turnover rate varies by region, given seasonal length differences; however, the NPP map provides the best available information on spatially explicit CONUS tidal marsh NPP. This study identifies gaps in the scientific knowledge, to support future studies in addressing this lack of turnover data. Across CONUS, average total peak biomass carbon stock in tidal marshes was 848 g C m\u22122 (871 g C m\u22122 in palustrine and 838 g C m\u22122 in estuarine marshes), and based on a median biomass turnover rate of 1, it is expected that the mean NPP annual flux for tidal marshes is similar (e.g., 848 g C m\u22122 y\u22121). Peak biomass carbon stocks in tidal marshes were lowest in the Florida Everglades region and highest in the California regions. These are the first fine-scale national maps of biomass carbon and NPP for tidal wetlands, spanning all of CONUS. These estimates of CONUS total peak biomass carbon stocks and NPP rates for tidal marshes can support regional- and national-scale assessments of greenhouse gas emissions, as well as natural resource management of coastal wetlands, as part of nature-based climate solution efforts.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs15061697","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,22]],"date-time":"2023-03-22T06:00:01Z","timestamp":1679464801000},"page":"1697","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":19,"title":["Above- and Belowground Biomass Carbon Stock and Net Primary Productivity Maps for Tidal Herbaceous Marshes of the United States"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7843-6486","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Victoria L.","family":"Woltz","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Cherokee Nation System Solutions Contractor to the U.S. Geological Survey, Wetland and Aquatic Research Center, Lafayette, LA 70506, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1125-7253","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Camille LaFosse","family":"Stagg","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"U.S. Geological Survey, Wetland and Aquatic Research Center, Lafayette, LA 70506, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kristin B.","family":"Byrd","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"U.S. Geological Survey, Western Geographic Science Center, Moffett Field, CA 94035, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0281-9581","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lisamarie","family":"Windham-Myers","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"U.S. Geological Survey, Water Resources Mission Area, Menlo Park, CA 94025, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Andre S.","family":"Rovai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Oceanography and Coastal Sciences, College of the Coast and Environment, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6860-6936","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zhiliang","family":"Zhu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"U.S. Geological Survey, Ecosystems Mission Area, Reston, VA 20192, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Masson-Delmotte, V.P., Zhai, A., Pirani, S.L., Connors, C., P\u00e9an, S., Berger, N., Caud, Y., Chen, L., Goldfarb, M.I., and Gomis, M. (2021). Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1038\/d41586-021-01241-2","article-title":"Nature-based solutions can help cool the planet\u2014If we act now","volume":"593","author":"Girardin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"552","DOI":"10.1890\/110004","article-title":"A blueprint for blue carbon: Toward an improved understanding of the role of vegetated coastal habitats in sequestering CO2","volume":"9","author":"Mcleod","year":"2011","journal-title":"Front. Ecol. Environ."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1111","DOI":"10.1029\/2002GB001917","article-title":"Global carbon sequestration in tidal, saline wetland soils","volume":"17","author":"Chmura","year":"2003","journal-title":"Glob. Biogeochem. Cycles"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"826","DOI":"10.1038\/s43017-021-00224-1","article-title":"Blue carbon as a natural climate solution","volume":"2","author":"Macreadie","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Earth Environ."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"523","DOI":"10.1126\/science.abo7872","article-title":"Constraints on the adjustment of tidal marshes to accelerating sea level rise","volume":"377","author":"Saintilan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"212","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecss.2018.01.006","article-title":"Climate-related variation in plant peak biomass and growth phenology across Pacific Northwest tidal marshes","volume":"202","author":"Buffington","year":"2018","journal-title":"Estuar. Coast. Shelf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103231","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aquabot.2020.103231","article-title":"Testing the interactive effects of flooding and salinity on tidal marsh plant productivity","volume":"164","author":"Buffington","year":"2020","journal-title":"Aquat. Bot."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1466-882X.2004.00075.x","article-title":"Acute salt marsh dieback in the Mississippi River deltaic plain: A drought-induced phenomenon?","volume":"13","author":"McKee","year":"2004","journal-title":"Glob. Ecol. Biogeogr."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stagg, C.L., Osland, M.J., Moon, J.A., Feher, L.C., Laurenzano, C., Lane, T.C., Jones, W.R., and Hartley, S.B. (2021). Extreme Precipitation and Flooding Contribute to Sudden Vegetation Dieback in a Coastal Salt Marsh. Plants, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/plants10091841"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2876","DOI":"10.1111\/1365-2664.13169","article-title":"Coastal wetland adaptation to sea level rise: Quantifying potential for landward migration and coastal squeeze","volume":"55","author":"Borchert","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Appl. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Whigham, D.F., Baldwin, A.H., and Barendregt, A. (2019). Coastal Wetlands, Elsevier."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) (2014). National Wetlands Inventory Website."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Couvillion, B.R., Beck, H., Schoolmaster, D., and Fischer, M. (2017). Land Area Change in Coastal Louisiana 1932 to 2016, U.S. Geological Survey. Scientific Investigations Map 3381.","DOI":"10.3133\/sim3381"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1109","DOI":"10.1038\/s41558-018-0345-0","article-title":"Coastal wetland management as a contribution to the US National Greenhouse Gas Inventory","volume":"8","author":"Crooks","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Clim. Chang."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) (2022, May 01). Inventory of US Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990\u20132020, Available online: https:\/\/www.epa.gov\/ghgemissions\/draft-inventory-us-greenhouse-gas-emissions-and-sinks-1990-2020."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Eggleston, H.S., Buendia, L., Miwa, K., Ngara, T., and Tanabe, K. (2006). 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories, Prepared by the National Greenhouse Gas Inventories Programme\u2019s, IGES."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Hiraishi, T., Krug, T., Tanabe, K., Srivastava, N., Baasansuren, J., Fukuda, M., and Troxler, T.G. (2014). 2013 Supplement to the 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories: Wetlands, IPCC."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Calvo Buendia, E., Tanabe, K., Kranjc, A., Baasansuren, J., Fukuda, M., Ngarize, S., Osako, A., Pyrozhenko, Y., Shermanau, P., and Federici, S. (2019). 2019 Refinement to the 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories, IPCC."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3300","DOI":"10.1007\/s11368-020-02643-x","article-title":"Precipitation and temperature regulate the carbon allocation process in alpine wetlands: Quantitative simulation","volume":"20","author":"Kang","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Soils. Sediments"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2019GB006349","DOI":"10.1029\/2019GB006349","article-title":"Tidal wetland gross primary production across the continental United States, 2000\u20132019","volume":"34","author":"Feagin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Global Biogeochem. Cycles"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2018.03.019","article-title":"A remote sensing-based model of tidal marsh aboveground carbon stocks for the conterminous United States","volume":"139","author":"Byrd","year":"2018","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2020.05.005","article-title":"Corrigendum to \u201cA remote sensing-based model of tidal marsh aboveground carbon stocks for the conterminous United States","volume":"166","author":"Byrd","year":"2020","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"480","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolmodel.2008.10.018","article-title":"CBM-CFS3: A model of carbon-dynamics in forestry and land-use change implementing IPCC standards","volume":"220","author":"Kurz","year":"2009","journal-title":"Ecol. Modell."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s13021-022-00201-1","article-title":"Operational assessment tool for forest carbon dynamics for the United States: A new spatially explicit approach linking the LUCAS and CBM-CFS3 models","volume":"17","author":"Sleeter","year":"2022","journal-title":"Carbon Balance Manag."},{"key":"ref_26","first-page":"189","article-title":"Assessing biomass of diverse coastal marsh ecosystems using statistical and machine learning models","volume":"68","author":"Mo","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, Y., and Liang, S. (2020). Fusion of multiple gridded biomass datasets for generating a global forest aboveground biomass map. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12162559"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sun, S., Wang, Y., Song, Z., Chen, C., Zhang, Y., Chen, X., Chen, W., Yuan, W., Wu, X., and Ran, X. (2021). Modelling Aboveground Biomass Carbon Stock of the Bohai Rim Coastal Wetlands by Integrating Remote Sensing, Terrain, and Climate Data. Remote Sens., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13214321"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1010933404324","article-title":"Random Forests","volume":"45","author":"Breiman","year":"2001","journal-title":"Mach. Learn"},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) (2016). National Wetland Condition Assessment 2011: A Collaborative Survey of the Nation\u2019s Wetlands, EPA EPA-843-R-15-005."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) (2020, March 02). Level III Ecoregions of the Continental United States, Available online: https:\/\/www.epa.gov\/eco-research\/level-iii-and-iv-ecoregions-continental-united-states."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Steeves, P., and Nebert, D. (2021, January 09). 1:250,000-Scale Hydrologic Units of the United States, Available online: https:\/\/water.usgs.gov\/lookup\/getspatial?huc250k."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5434","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-019-13294-z","article-title":"Tidal wetland resilience to sea level rise increases their carbon sequestration capacity in United States","volume":"10","author":"Wang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"425","DOI":"10.1016\/j.oneear.2021.02.011","article-title":"Sea-level rise enhances carbon accumulation in United States tidal wetlands","volume":"4","author":"Herbert","year":"2021","journal-title":"One Earth"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"603","DOI":"10.1007\/s10021-001-0032-1","article-title":"Phosphorus biogeochemistry and the impact of phosphorus enrichment: Why is the Everglades so unique?","volume":"4","author":"Noe","year":"2001","journal-title":"Ecosystems"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"517","DOI":"10.1007\/s11273-009-9156-4","article-title":"The everglades: North America\u2019s subtropical wetland","volume":"18","author":"Richardson","year":"2010","journal-title":"Wetl. Ecol. Manag."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Office for Coastal Management (2020, February 19). NOAA\u2019s Coastal Change Analysis Program (C-CAP) 2010 Regional Land Cover Data\u2013Coastal United States, Available online: https:\/\/www.fisheries.noaa.gov\/inport\/item\/48335."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"Holmquist, J.R., and Windham-Myers, L. (2021). Relative Tidal Marsh Elevation Maps with Uncertainty for Conterminous USA, 2010, ORNL DAAC."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"Kuhn, M., Wing, J., Weston, S., Williams, A., Keefer, C., Engelhardt, A., Cooper, T., Mayer, Z., Kenkel, B., and R Core Team (2021, November 04). Caret: Classification and Regression Training; R Package Version 6.0-84. Available online: https:\/\/CRAN.R-project.org\/package=caret."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"R Core Team (2020). R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing (3.6.3), R Foundation for Statistical Computing. Available online: https:\/\/www.R-project.org\/."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1016\/0034-4257(88)90106-X","article-title":"A soil-adjusted vegetation index (SAVI)","volume":"25","author":"Huete","year":"1988","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1078\/0176-1617-01176","article-title":"Wide dynamic range vegetation index for remote quantification of biophysical characteristics of vegetation","volume":"161","author":"Gitelson","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Plant Physiol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"354","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2004.03.013","article-title":"Accuracy assessments of hyperspectral waveband performance for vegetation analysis applications","volume":"91","author":"Thenkabail","year":"2004","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1039","DOI":"10.1890\/1051-0761(1997)007[1039:MPCSMU]2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Monitoring Pacific coast salt marshes using remote sensing","volume":"7","author":"Zhang","year":"1997","journal-title":"Ecol. Appl."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e01582","DOI":"10.1002\/ecs2.1582","article-title":"Forecasting tidal marsh elevation and habitat change through fusion of Earth observations and a process model","volume":"7","author":"Byrd","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ecosphere"},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"Google Earth Engine (2021, December 31). USGS Landsat 8 Surface Reflectance Tier 1. Earth Engine Data Catalog. Available online: https:\/\/developers.google.com\/earth-engine\/datasets\/catalog\/LANDSAT_LC08_C01_T1_SR."},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"Falgout, J.T., and Gordon, J. (2021). USGS Advanced Research Computing, USGS Yeti Supercomputer, U.S. Geological Survey."},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) (2022, August 03). Advanced Research Computing. USGS Yeti Supercomputer: U.S. Geological Survey, n.d, Available online: https:\/\/www.usgs.gov\/advanced-research-computing."},{"key":"ref_49","first-page":"47","article-title":"Geographic variations in salt marsh macrophyte production: A review","volume":"20","author":"Turner","year":"1976","journal-title":"Contrib. Mar. Sci."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"252","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02732859","article-title":"Aboveground and belowground productivity of spartina alterniflora (smooth cordgrass) in natural and created Louisiana salt marshes","volume":"28","author":"Edwards","year":"2005","journal-title":"Estuaries"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Woltz, V.L., Stagg, C.L., Byrd, K.B., Windham-Myers, L., Rovai, A.S., and Zhu, Z. (2022). Biomass Carbon Stock and Net Primary Productivity in Tidal Herbaceous Wetlands of the Conterminous United States, U.S. Geological Survey.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs15061697"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.3354\/meps032071","article-title":"Variability of Spartina alterniflora primary production in the euhaline North Inlet estuary","volume":"32","author":"Dame","year":"1986","journal-title":"Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1276","DOI":"10.1002\/ece3.2758","article-title":"Can community structure track sea-level rise? Stress and competitive controls in tidal wetlands","volume":"7","author":"Schile","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ecol. Evol."},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"Smalley, A.E. (1958). The Role of Two Invertebrate Populations, Littorina irrorata and Orchelium fificinium, in the Energy Flow of a Salt Marsh Ecosystem. [Ph.D. Thesis, University of Georgia]."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.2307\/1937106","article-title":"Primary production and the disappearance of dead vegetation on an old field in southeastern Michigan","volume":"45","author":"Wiegert","year":"1964","journal-title":"Ecology"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1249","DOI":"10.1007\/s00267-014-0364-1","article-title":"Ecoregions of the conterminous United States: Evolution of a hierarchical spatial framework","volume":"54","author":"Omernik","year":"2014","journal-title":"Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_57","unstructured":"Watson, R.T., Noble, I.R., Bolin, B., Ravindranath, N.H., Verardo, D.J., and Dokken, D.J. (2000). Land Use, Land Use Change, and Forestry: Special Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press. Environmental Conservation."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"674","DOI":"10.1038\/ngeo2782","article-title":"Biomass turnover time in terrestrial ecosystems halved by land use","volume":"9","author":"Erb","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6977","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-25212-2","article-title":"US agro-climate in 20th century: Growing degree days, first and last frost, growing season length, and impacts on crop yields","volume":"8","author":"Kukal","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_60","unstructured":"U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) (2023, February 02). California Crops Under Climate Change: Impacts and Opportunities for California Agriculture, n.d, Available online: https:\/\/www.climatehubs.usda.gov\/hubs\/california\/california-crops-under-climate-change."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1596","DOI":"10.1007\/s12237-021-01027-9","article-title":"A Conterminous USA-Scale Map of Relative Tidal Marsh Elevation","volume":"45","author":"Holmquist","year":"2022","journal-title":"Estuar. Coast"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1007\/s13157-014-0601-7","article-title":"Vegetation change in salt marshes of Cape Cod National Seashore (Massachusetts, USA) between 1984 and 2013","volume":"35","author":"Smith","year":"2015","journal-title":"Wetlands"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"856","DOI":"10.1007\/s12237-016-0177-y","article-title":"A Landscape-scale assessment of above- and belowground primary production in coastal wetlands: Implications for climate change-induced community shifts","volume":"40","author":"Stagg","year":"2017","journal-title":"Estuaries Coast"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aquabot.2012.03.014","article-title":"Will inundation and salinity levels associated with projected sea level rise reduce the survival, growth, and reproductive capacity of Sarcocornia pacifica (pickleweed)?","volume":"102","author":"Woo","year":"2012","journal-title":"Aquat. Bot."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e02672","DOI":"10.1002\/ecy.2672","article-title":"Phosphorus alleviation of salinity stress: Effects of saltwater intrusion on an Everglades freshwater peat marsh","volume":"100","author":"Wilson","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ecology"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e13524","DOI":"10.1111\/rec.13524","article-title":"Saltwater and nutrient legacies reduce net ecosystem carbon storage despite freshwater restoration: Insights from experimental wetlands","volume":"30","author":"Lee","year":"2021","journal-title":"Restor. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1868","DOI":"10.1007\/s12237-019-00620-3","article-title":"Experimental saltwater intrusion drives rapid soil elevation and carbon loss in freshwater and brackish Everglades marshes","volume":"42","author":"Charles","year":"2019","journal-title":"Estuar. Coast."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.3375\/0885-8608(2007)27[41:DNAAFR]2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Decoupling natural and anthropogenic fire regimes: A case study in Everglades National Park, Florida","volume":"27","author":"Slocum","year":"2007","journal-title":"Nat. Areas J."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2147","DOI":"10.1007\/s12237-018-0438-z","article-title":"Declines in plant productivity drive carbon loss from brackish coastal wetland mesocosms exposed to saltwater intrusion","volume":"41","author":"Wilson","year":"2018","journal-title":"Estuar. Coast"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2702","DOI":"10.1002\/eap.2702","article-title":"Modeling net ecosystem carbon balance and loss in coastal wetlands exposed to sea-level rise and saltwater intrusion","volume":"32","author":"Ishtiaq","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ecol. Appl."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-72624-0","article-title":"Temporal and spatial variations in the frequency of compound hot, dry, and windy events in the central United States","volume":"10","author":"Tavakol","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_72","unstructured":"Tunnell, J.W., and Judd, F.W. (2002). The Laguna Madre of Texas and Tamaulipas, Texas A&M University Press. [1st ed.]."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1991","DOI":"10.1007\/s12237-019-00640-z","article-title":"Climatic controls on the distribution of foundation plant species in coastal wetlands of the conterminous United States: Knowledge gaps and emerging research needs","volume":"42","author":"Osland","year":"2019","journal-title":"Estuar. Coast"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.1016\/0304-3770(89)90074-0","article-title":"Response of a freshwater marsh plant community to increased salinity and increased water level","volume":"34","author":"McKee","year":"1989","journal-title":"Aquat. Bot."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1672\/0277-5212(2004)024[0043:IEOSFA]2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Interactive effects of salinity, flooding, and soil type on Panicum hemitomon","volume":"24","author":"Willis","year":"2004","journal-title":"Wetlands"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"313","DOI":"10.1007\/s13157-016-0871-3","article-title":"Relationships between salinity and short-term soil carbon accumulation rates from marsh types across a landscape in the Mississippi River Delta","volume":"37","author":"Baustian","year":"2017","journal-title":"Wetlands"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"218","DOI":"10.2307\/1352695","article-title":"The introduction and spread of smooth cordgrass (Spartina alterniflora) in South San Francisco Bay","volume":"15","author":"Callaway","year":"1992","journal-title":"Estuaries"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"236","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00572685","article-title":"Salt marsh productivity with natural and altered tidal circulation","volume":"44","author":"Zedler","year":"1980","journal-title":"Oecologia"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"180","DOI":"10.2307\/2484897","article-title":"Production of dominant emergent vegetation and of pool algae on a northern Massachusetts salt marsh","volume":"108","author":"Ruber","year":"1981","journal-title":"Bull. Torrey Bot. Club"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"973","DOI":"10.2307\/2402103","article-title":"Production and Dynamics of Salt Marsh Vegetation and the Effects of Experimental Treatment with Sewage Sludge: Biomass, Production and Species Composition","volume":"12","author":"Valiela","year":"1975","journal-title":"J. Appl. Ecol"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"368","DOI":"10.2307\/2996037","article-title":"Growth and survival of giant ragweed (Ambrosia trifida L.) in a Delaware River freshwater tidal wetland","volume":"112","author":"Sickels","year":"1985","journal-title":"Bull. Torrey Bot. Club"},{"key":"ref_82","first-page":"1","article-title":"Comparison of the productivity of Spartina alterniflora and S. cynosuroides in Georgia coastal marshes","volume":"31","author":"Odum","year":"1973","journal-title":"Bull. Ga. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"672","DOI":"10.1007\/s00442-004-1675-3","article-title":"Ecological effects of low-level phosphorus additions on two plant communities in a neotropical freshwater wetland ecosystem","volume":"141","author":"Daoust","year":"2004","journal-title":"Oecologia"},{"key":"ref_84","unstructured":"NASA (2021, October 19). MODIS Gross Primary Production (GPP)\/Net Primary Production (NPP), Available online: http:\/\/modis.gsfc.nasa.gov\/data\/dataprod\/mod17.php."},{"key":"ref_85","unstructured":"Breemen, N., and Buurman, P. (2002). Soil Formation, Kluwer Academic Publishers. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_86","unstructured":"Chapman, S. Personal communication."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Windham-Myers, L., Crooks, S., and Troxler, T.G. (2018). A Blue Carbon Primer, CRC Press. [1st ed.].","DOI":"10.1201\/9780429435362"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"012011","DOI":"10.1088\/1755-1315\/500\/1\/012011","article-title":"Above-ground biomass estimation of mangrove forest using WorldView-2 imagery in Perancak Estuary, Bali","volume":"Volume 500","author":"Utari","year":"2020","journal-title":"Proceedings of the IOP Conference Series Earth and Environmental Science"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bhatti, S., Ahmad, S.R., and Asif, M. (2022). Estimation of aboveground carbon stock using Sentinel-2A data and Random Forest algorithm in scrub forests of the Salt Range, Pakistan. J. For. Res, cpac036.","DOI":"10.1093\/forestry\/cpac036"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1861","DOI":"10.1007\/s12237-022-01081-x","article-title":"Development and Application of Landsat-Based Wetland Vegetation Cover and UnVegetated-Vegetated Marsh Ratio (UVVR) for the Conterminous United States","volume":"45","author":"Ganju","year":"2022","journal-title":"Estuar. Coast"},{"key":"ref_91","unstructured":"(2020, July 22). MultiResolution Land Characteristics (MRLC) Consortium National Land Cover Database (NLCD). Sioux Falls, SD: U.S. Geological Survey, Available online: http:\/\/www.mrlc.gov."},{"key":"ref_92","first-page":"102776","article-title":"A phenology-based vegetation index classification (PVC) algorithm for coastal salt marshes using Landsat 8 images","volume":"110","author":"Zeng","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf"},{"key":"ref_93","unstructured":"U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) (2022, December 12). What are the Acquisition Schedules for the Landsat Satellites? USGS: Science for a Changing World, n.d, Available online: https:\/\/www.usgs.gov\/faqs\/what-are-acquisition-schedules-landsat-satellites#:~:text=Each%20satellite%20makes%20a%20complete,scene%20area%20on%20the%20globe."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1177","DOI":"10.2112\/08-1080.1","article-title":"The effects of tidal inundation on the reflectance characteristics of coastal marsh vegetation","volume":"25","author":"Kearney","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Coast Res."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5373","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160600763006","article-title":"Evaluation of hyperspectral indices for LAI estimation and discrimination of potato crop under different irrigation treatments","volume":"27","author":"Ray","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s13021-017-0070-4","article-title":"A carbon balance model for the great dismal swamp ecosystem","volume":"12","author":"Sleeter","year":"2017","journal-title":"Carbon Balance Manag."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2019.134497","article-title":"Carbon offset market methodologies applicable for coastal wetland restoration and conservation in the United States: A review","volume":"701","author":"Sapkota","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/15\/6\/1697\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T18:59:56Z","timestamp":1760122796000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/15\/6\/1697"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,21]]},"references-count":97,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,3]]}},"alternative-id":["rs15061697"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs15061697","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,21]]}}}