{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T02:00:40Z","timestamp":1760148040215,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":94,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,23]],"date-time":"2023-03-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1679529600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100010665","name":"H2020 Marie Sk\u0142odowska-Curie Actions","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["840374","UP2021-035","PID2021-125324OB-I00","CEX2019-000928-S","AO\/1-9158\/18\/I-BG"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["840374","UP2021-035","PID2021-125324OB-I00","CEX2019-000928-S","AO\/1-9158\/18\/I-BG"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100010665","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Margarita Salas Fellowship","award":["840374","UP2021-035","PID2021-125324OB-I00","CEX2019-000928-S","AO\/1-9158\/18\/I-BG"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["840374","UP2021-035","PID2021-125324OB-I00","CEX2019-000928-S","AO\/1-9158\/18\/I-BG"]}]},{"name":"AEI","award":["840374","UP2021-035","PID2021-125324OB-I00","CEX2019-000928-S","AO\/1-9158\/18\/I-BG"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["840374","UP2021-035","PID2021-125324OB-I00","CEX2019-000928-S","AO\/1-9158\/18\/I-BG"]}]},{"name":"Spanish government","award":["840374","UP2021-035","PID2021-125324OB-I00","CEX2019-000928-S","AO\/1-9158\/18\/I-BG"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["840374","UP2021-035","PID2021-125324OB-I00","CEX2019-000928-S","AO\/1-9158\/18\/I-BG"]}]},{"name":"ESA Arctic + Salinity Project","award":["840374","UP2021-035","PID2021-125324OB-I00","CEX2019-000928-S","AO\/1-9158\/18\/I-BG"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["840374","UP2021-035","PID2021-125324OB-I00","CEX2019-000928-S","AO\/1-9158\/18\/I-BG"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This study assesses the capability of Surface Quasi-Geostrophy (SQG) to reconstruct the three-dimensional (3D) dynamics in four critical areas of the Arctic Ocean: the Nordic, Barents, East Siberian, and Beaufort Seas. We first reconstruct the upper ocean dynamics from TOPAZ4 reanalysis of sea surface height (SSH), surface buoyancy (SSB), and surface velocities (SSV) and validate the results with the geostrophic and total TOPAZ4 velocities. The reconstruction of upper ocean dynamics using SSH fields is in high agreement with the geostrophic velocities, with correlation coefficients greater than 0.8 for the upper 400 m. SSH reconstructions outperform surface buoyancy reconstructions, even in places near freshwater inputs from river discharges, melting sea ice, and glaciers. Surface buoyancy fails due to the uncorrelation of SSB and subsurface potential vorticity (PV). Reconstruction from surface currents correlates to the total TOPAZ4 velocities with correlation coefficients greater than 0.6 up to 200 m. In the second part, we apply the SQG approach validated with the reanalysis outputs to satellite-derived sea level anomalies and validate the results against in-situ measurements. Due to lower water column stratification, the SQG approach\u2019s performance is better in fall and winter than in spring and summer. Our results demonstrate that using surface information from SSH or surface velocities, combined with information on the stratification of the water column, it is possible to effectively reconstruct the upper ocean dynamics in the Arctic and Subarctic Seas up to 400 m. Future remote sensing missions in the Arctic Ocean, such as SWOT, Seastar, WaCM, CIMR, and CRISTAL, will produce enhanced SSH and surface velocity observations, allowing SQG schemes to characterize upper ocean 3D mesoscale dynamics up to 400 m with higher resolutions and lower uncertainties.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs15071722","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,23]],"date-time":"2023-03-23T04:37:28Z","timestamp":1679546248000},"page":"1722","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Surface and Interior Dynamics of Arctic Seas Using Surface Quasi-Geostrophic Approach"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0748-7566","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marta","family":"Umbert","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physical and Technological Oceanography, Institut de Ci\u00e8ncies del Mar, CSIC, 08003 Barcelona, Spain"},{"name":"Barcelona Expert Center on Remote Sensing, CSIC-UPC, 08003 Barcelona, Spain"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7053-3943","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Eva","family":"De-Andr\u00e9s","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physical and Technological Oceanography, Institut de Ci\u00e8ncies del Mar, CSIC, 08003 Barcelona, Spain"},{"name":"Department of Applied Mathematics, Universidad Polit\u00e9cnica de Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8344-8326","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rafael","family":"Gon\u00e7alves-Araujo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Institute of Aquatic Resources, Technical University of Denmark, DTU Aqua, 2800 Lyngby, Denmark"}]},{"given":"Marina","family":"Guti\u00e9rrez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departamento de F\u00edsica, Universidad Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC), 35017 Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain"}]},{"given":"Roshin","family":"Raj","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Nansen Environmental and Remote Sensing Center (NERSC) and Bjerknes Center for Climate Research, 5007 Bergen, Norway"}]},{"given":"Laurent","family":"Bertino","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Nansen Environmental and Remote Sensing Center (NERSC) and Bjerknes Center for Climate Research, 5007 Bergen, Norway"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0004-1964","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Carolina","family":"Gabarr\u00f3","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physical and Technological Oceanography, Institut de Ci\u00e8ncies del Mar, CSIC, 08003 Barcelona, Spain"},{"name":"Barcelona Expert Center on Remote Sensing, CSIC-UPC, 08003 Barcelona, Spain"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9324-608X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jordi","family":"Isern-Fontanet","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physical and Technological Oceanography, Institut de Ci\u00e8ncies del Mar, CSIC, 08003 Barcelona, Spain"},{"name":"Barcelona Expert Center on Remote Sensing, CSIC-UPC, 08003 Barcelona, Spain"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.1038\/nature10705","article-title":"Changing arctic ocean freshwater pathways","volume":"481","author":"Morison","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gloplacha.2014.11.013","article-title":"Arctic freshwater export: Status, mechanisms, and prospects","volume":"125","author":"Haine","year":"2015","journal-title":"Glob. Planet. Chang."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1053","DOI":"10.1175\/JPO-D-20-0190.1","article-title":"The Cyclonic Mode of Arctic Ocean Circulation","volume":"51","author":"Morison","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Phys. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4703","DOI":"10.5194\/tc-15-4703-2021","article-title":"Lasting impact of winds on Arctic sea ice through the ocean\u2019s memory","volume":"15","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cryosphere"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"761","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-020-14449-z","article-title":"Enhanced eddy activity in the Beaufort Gyre in response to sea ice loss","volume":"11","author":"Armitage","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3278","DOI":"10.1002\/2015JC010903","article-title":"Sea ice circulation around the Beaufort Gyre: The changing role of wind forcing and the sea ice state","volume":"121","author":"Petty","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Ocean."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Campos, C., and Horn, M. (2018). YOUMARES 8\u2013Oceans Across Boundaries: Learning from Each Other, Springer."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17-1","DOI":"10.1029\/2002GL015650","article-title":"A rapidly declining perennial sea ice cover in the Arctic","volume":"29","author":"Comiso","year":"2002","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"627","DOI":"10.1038\/ngeo2234","article-title":"Recent Arctic amplification and extreme mid-latitude weather","volume":"7","author":"Cohen","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nat. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2018JC014378","DOI":"10.1029\/2018JC014378","article-title":"Understanding Arctic Ocean circulation: A review of ocean dynamics in a changing climate","volume":"125","author":"Timmermans","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Ocean."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1175\/JPO-D-17-0273.1","article-title":"Water mass transformation in the Greenland Sea during the period 1986\u20132016","volume":"49","author":"Brakstad","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Phys. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1005648404783","article-title":"The thermohaline ocean circulation: A system with dangerous thresholds?","volume":"46","author":"Rahmstorf","year":"2000","journal-title":"Clim. Chang."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"953","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1100085","article-title":"Already the day after tomorrow?","volume":"305","author":"Hansen","year":"2004","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"11","article-title":"The Nordic Seas, main oceanographic features","volume":"158","author":"Blindheim","year":"2005","journal-title":"Geophys.-Monogr.-Am. Geophys. Union"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmarsys.2004.06.008","article-title":"The interaction between waters from the Arctic Ocean and the Nordic Seas north of Fram Strait and along the East Greenland Current: Results from the Arctic Ocean-02 Oden expedition","volume":"55","author":"Rudels","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Mar. Syst."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2966","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-021-23321-7","article-title":"The poleward enhanced Arctic Ocean cooling machine in a warming climate","volume":"12","author":"Shu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3327","DOI":"10.1175\/JCLI-D-18-0750.1","article-title":"The role of Atlantic heat transport in future Arctic winter sea ice loss","volume":"32","author":"Eldevik","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"410","DOI":"10.1029\/2012JC008291","article-title":"Source and formation of the upper halocline of the Arctic Ocean","volume":"118","author":"Anderson","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Ocean."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15-1","DOI":"10.1029\/2002GL015847","article-title":"The role of the Beaufort Gyre in Arctic climate variability: Seasonal to decadal climate scales","volume":"29","author":"Proshutinsky","year":"2002","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.1002\/qj.3404","article-title":"Lagrangian transport across the upper arctic waters in the Canada basin","volume":"145","author":"Xie","year":"2019","journal-title":"Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pickart, R.S. (2004). Shelfbreak circulation in the Alaskan Beaufort Sea: Mean structure and variability. J. Geophys. Res. Ocean., 109.","DOI":"10.1029\/2003JC001912"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1229","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-021-21470-3","article-title":"Labrador Sea freshening linked to Beaufort Gyre freshwater release","volume":"12","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"57","article-title":"Changes in Arctic Ocean Circulation from In Situ and Remotely Sensed Observations","volume":"35","author":"Morison","year":"2022","journal-title":"Oceanography"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4696","DOI":"10.1029\/2019JC015022","article-title":"On the origin of water masses in the Beaufort Gyre","volume":"124","author":"Kelly","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Ocean."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9658","DOI":"10.1029\/2019JC015281","article-title":"Analysis of the Beaufort Gyre freshwater content in 2003\u20132018","volume":"124","author":"Proshutinsky","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Ocean."},{"key":"ref_26","first-page":"60","article-title":"Surface currents in operational oceanography: Key applications, mechanisms, and methods","volume":"16","author":"Sutherland","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Oper. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111769","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2020.111769","article-title":"Sea surface salinity estimates from spaceborne L-band radiometers: An overview of the first decade of observation (2010\u20132019)","volume":"242","author":"Reul","year":"2020","journal-title":"Remote. Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.5194\/essd-14-307-2022","article-title":"Improved BEC SMOS Arctic Sea surface salinity product v3. 1","volume":"14","author":"Turiel","year":"2022","journal-title":"Earth Syst. Sci. Data"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.5670\/oceanog.2010.08","article-title":"Monitoring ocean currents with satellite sensors","volume":"23","author":"Dohan","year":"2010","journal-title":"Oceanography"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2769","DOI":"10.1175\/JTECH-D-16-0017.1","article-title":"Improving the altimeter-derived surface currents using high-resolution sea surface temperature data: A feasability study based on model outputs","volume":"33","author":"Rio","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"433","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0485(1998)028<0433:GVOTFB>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Geographical variability of the first baroclinic Rossby radius of deformation","volume":"28","author":"Chelton","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Phys. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"967","DOI":"10.5194\/os-10-967-2014","article-title":"The rossby radius in the arctic ocean","volume":"10","author":"Nurser","year":"2014","journal-title":"Ocean. Sci."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"611","DOI":"10.1029\/2005GL024633","article-title":"Improved description of the ocean mesoscale variability by combining four satellite altimeters","volume":"33","author":"Pascual","year":"2006","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1091","DOI":"10.5194\/os-15-1091-2019","article-title":"On the resolutions of ocean altimetry maps","volume":"15","author":"Ballarotta","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ocean. Sci."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5889","DOI":"10.1029\/2017JC013503","article-title":"Gauging the improvement of recent mean sea surface models: A new approach for identifying and quantifying their errors","volume":"123","author":"Pujol","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Ocean."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4303","DOI":"10.1002\/2015JC011579","article-title":"Arctic sea surface height variability and change from satellite radar altimetry and GRACE, 2003\u20132014","volume":"121","author":"Armitage","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Ocean."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"425","DOI":"10.3389\/fmars.2019.00425","article-title":"Integrated observations of global surface winds, currents, and waves: Requirements and challenges for the next decade","volume":"6","author":"Ardhuin","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Mar. Sci."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"457","DOI":"10.3389\/fmars.2019.00457","article-title":"SEASTAR: A mission to study ocean submesoscale dynamics and small-scale atmosphere-ocean processes in coastal, shelf and polar seas","volume":"6","author":"Gommenginger","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Mar. Sci."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ciani, D., Santoleri, R., Liberti, G.L., Prigent, C., Donlon, C., and Buongiorno Nardelli, B. (2019). Copernicus Imaging Microwave Radiometer (CIMR) Benefits for the Copernicus Level 4 Sea-Surface Salinity Processing Chain. Remote Sens., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11151818"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"438","DOI":"10.3389\/fmars.2019.00438","article-title":"The winds and currents mission concept","volume":"6","author":"Bourassa","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Mar. Sci."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"256","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pocean.2018.10.012","article-title":"Prospects for future satellite estimation of small-scale variability of ocean surface velocity and vorticity","volume":"173","author":"Chelton","year":"2019","journal-title":"Prog. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1053","DOI":"10.1175\/JTECH-D-21-0167.1","article-title":"The Effects of Uncorrelated Measurement Noise on SWOT Estimates of Sea-Surface Height, Velocity and Vorticity","volume":"39","author":"Chelton","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2235","DOI":"10.5194\/tc-14-2235-2020","article-title":"The Copernicus Polar Ice and Snow Topography Altimeter (CRISTAL) high-priority candidate mission","volume":"14","author":"Kern","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cryosphere"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"867","DOI":"10.1175\/JTECH-D-11-00099.1","article-title":"A Novel Approach for the High-Resolution Interpolation of In Situ Sea Surface Salinity","volume":"29","author":"Buongiorno","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1533","DOI":"10.1002\/2017JC013316","article-title":"Three-dimensional ageostrophic motion and water mass subduction in the Southern Ocean","volume":"123","author":"Mulet","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Ocean."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1175\/JPO2840.1","article-title":"Dynamics of the Upper Oceanic Layers in Terms of Surface Quasigeostrophy Theory","volume":"36","author":"Lapeyre","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Phys. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"695","DOI":"10.1357\/002224006779367267","article-title":"Estimating subsurface horizontal and vertical velocities from sea-surface temperature","volume":"64","author":"LaCasce","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Mar. Res."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1406","DOI":"10.1175\/JPO-D-13-0186.1","article-title":"On the transfer function between surface fields and the geostrophic stream function in the Mediterranean Sea","volume":"44","author":"Shinde","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Phys. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Isern-Fontanet, J., Garc\u00eda-Ladona, E., Jim\u00e9nez-Madrid, J.A., Olmedo, E., Garc\u00eda-Sotillo, M., Orfila, A., and Turiel, A. (2020). Real-time reconstruction of surface velocities from satellite observations in the Alboran sea. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12040724"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Isern-Fontanet, J., Garc\u00eda-Ladona, E., Gonz\u00e1lez-Haro, C., Turiel, A., Rosell-Fieschi, M., Company, J.B., and Padial, A. (2021). High-Resolution Ocean Currents from Sea Surface Temperature Observations: The Catalan Sea (Western Mediterranean). Remote Sens., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13183635"},{"key":"ref_51","first-page":"L24608","article-title":"Potential use of microwave sea surface temperatures for the estimation of ocean currents","volume":"22","author":"Chapron","year":"2006","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3378","DOI":"10.1002\/2013JC009728","article-title":"Global ocean current reconstruction from altimetric and microwave SST measurements","volume":"119","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Ocean."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6427","DOI":"10.1002\/2016GL069595","article-title":"Retrieval of eddy dynamics from SMOS sea surface salinity measurements in the Algerian Basin (Mediterranean Sea)","volume":"43","author":"Olmedo","year":"2016","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Isern-Fontanet, J., Lapeyre, G., Klein, P., Chapron, B., and Hecht, M.W. (2008). Three-dimensional reconstruction of oceanic mesoscale currents from surface information. J. Geophys. Res. Ocean., 113.","DOI":"10.1029\/2007JC004692"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2021JC018001","DOI":"10.1029\/2021JC018001","article-title":"Can the Surface Quasi-Geostrophic (SQG) Theory Explain Upper Ocean Dynamics in the South Atlantic?","volume":"127","author":"Napolitano","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Ocean."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1611","DOI":"10.1175\/JPO-D-12-0204.1","article-title":"Reconstructing the ocean\u2019s interior from surface data","volume":"43","author":"Wang","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Phys. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2424","DOI":"10.1175\/JPO-D-14-0206.1","article-title":"Estimating subsurface velocities from surface fields with idealized stratification","volume":"45","author":"LaCasce","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Phys. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_58","first-page":"dzw001","article-title":"The vertical structure of ocean eddies","volume":"1","author":"LaCasce","year":"2016","journal-title":"Dyn. Stat. Clim. Syst."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lapeyre, G. (2017). Surface quasi-geostrophy. Fluids, 2.","DOI":"10.3390\/fluids2010007"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1002\/2017GL075430","article-title":"The prevalence of oceanic surface modes","volume":"44","author":"Lacasce","year":"2017","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L12603","DOI":"10.1029\/2009GL038359","article-title":"Diagnosis of vertical velocities in the upper ocean from high resolution sea surface height","volume":"36","author":"Klein","year":"2009","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1002\/2013JC009176","article-title":"Diagnosis of high-resolution upper ocean dynamics from noisy sea surface temperatures","volume":"119","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Ocean."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1711","DOI":"10.5194\/essd-12-1711-2020","article-title":"A multi-year time series of observation-based 3D horizontal and vertical quasi-geostrophic global ocean currents","volume":"12","year":"2020","journal-title":"Earth Syst. Sci. Data"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"491","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-marine-122414-034113","article-title":"Ocean data assimilation in support of climate applications: Status and perspectives","volume":"8","author":"Stammer","year":"2016","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Mar. Sci."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.5194\/os-13-123-2017","article-title":"Quality assessment of the TOPAZ4 reanalysis in the Arctic over the period 1991\u20132013","volume":"13","author":"Xie","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ocean Sci."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5469","DOI":"10.5194\/essd-13-5469-2021","article-title":"Arctic sea surface height maps from multi-altimeter combination","volume":"13","author":"Prandi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Earth Syst. Sci. Data"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6704","DOI":"10.1002\/2013JC009067","article-title":"EN4: Quality controlled ocean temperature and salinity profiles and monthly objective analyses with uncertainty estimates","volume":"118","author":"Good","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Ocean."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"877","DOI":"10.1002\/qj.49711147002","article-title":"On the use and significance of isentropic potential vorticity maps","volume":"111","author":"Hoskins","year":"1985","journal-title":"Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.5194\/os-7-1-2011","article-title":"Absolute Salinity, \u201cDensity Salinity\u201d and the Reference-Composition Salinity Scale: Present and future use in the seawater standard TEOS-10","volume":"7","author":"Wright","year":"2011","journal-title":"Ocean Sci."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2019JC015958","DOI":"10.1029\/2019JC015958","article-title":"Ocean surface currents reconstruction: Spectral characterization of the transfer function between SST and SSH","volume":"125","author":"Tandeo","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Ocean"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1017\/S0022112095000012","article-title":"Surface quasi-geostrophic dynamics","volume":"282","author":"Held","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Fluid Mech."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14690","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0605494103","article-title":"A theory for the atmospheric energy spectrum: Depth-limited temperature anomalies at the tropopause","volume":"103","author":"Tulloch","year":"2006","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vallis, G.K. (2017). Atmospheric and Oceanic Fluid Dynamics, Cambridge University Press.","DOI":"10.1017\/9781107588417"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1229","DOI":"10.5194\/gmd-11-1229-2018","article-title":"A 4.5 km resolution Arctic Ocean simulation with the global multi-resolution model FESOM 1.4","volume":"11","author":"Wang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Geosci. Model Dev."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2021JC017407","DOI":"10.1029\/2021JC017407","article-title":"Insights Into Water Mass Origins in the Central Arctic Ocean From In-Situ Dissolved Organic Matter Fluorescence","volume":"126","author":"Stedmon","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Ocean."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dsr.2014.10.011","article-title":"The Lofoten vortex of the Nordic seas","volume":"96","author":"Raj","year":"2015","journal-title":"Deep. Sea Res. Part I Oceanogr. Res. Pap."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1735","DOI":"10.1175\/JPO-D-14-0238.1","article-title":"Observations of water mass transformation and eddies in the Lofoten Basin of the Nordic Seas","volume":"45","author":"Richards","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Phys. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_78","first-page":"62","article-title":"Formation and regeneration of the pycnocline lens in the Norwegian Sea","volume":"9","author":"Ivanov","year":"1995","journal-title":"Russ. Meteor. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2637","DOI":"10.1175\/2007JPO3694.1","article-title":"Generation and stability of a quasi-permanent vortex in the Lofoten Basin","volume":"37","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Phys. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2689","DOI":"10.1175\/JPO-D-20-0029.1","article-title":"The regeneration of the Lofoten Vortex through vertical alignment","volume":"50","author":"Trodahl","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Phys. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8385","DOI":"10.1002\/2017JC012974","article-title":"Eddy-resolving simulation of the Atlantic water circulation in the Fram Strait with focus on the seasonal cycle","volume":"122","author":"Wekerle","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Ocean."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2019JC015832","DOI":"10.1029\/2019JC015832","article-title":"Eddies in the North Greenland Sea and Fram Strait from satellite altimetry, SAR and high-resolution model data","volume":"125","author":"Bashmachnikov","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Ocean."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1624","DOI":"10.3389\/fmars.2022.949610","article-title":"Distinct roles of global cyclonic and anticyclonic eddies in regulating near-inertial internal waves in the ocean interior","volume":"9","author":"Yuan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Mar. Sci."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-marine-032122-012034","article-title":"The Arctic Ocean\u2019s Beaufort Gyre","volume":"15","author":"Timmermans","year":"2023","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Mar. Sci."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2020JC016670","DOI":"10.1029\/2020JC016670","article-title":"Large mesoscale eddies in the Western Arctic Ocean from satellite altimetry measurements","volume":"126","author":"Kubryakov","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Ocean."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8918","DOI":"10.1002\/2014GL061773","article-title":"Beyond GOCE for the ocean circulation estimate: Synergetic use of altimetry, gravimetry, and in situ data provides new insight into geostrophic and Ekman currents","volume":"41","author":"Rio","year":"2014","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ciani, D., Rio, M.H., Nardelli, B.B., Etienne, H., and Santoleri, R. (2020). Improving the altimeter-derived surface currents using sea surface temperature (SST) data: A sensitivity study to SST products. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12101601"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"553","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-391851-2.00021-0","article-title":"Dynamically and kinematically consistent global ocean circulation and ice state estimates","volume":"Volume 103","author":"Wunsch","year":"2013","journal-title":"International Geophysics"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.3389\/fmars.2019.00090","article-title":"Synthesis of ocean observations using data assimilation for operational, real-time and reanalysis systems: A more complete picture of the state of the ocean","volume":"6","author":"Moore","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Mar. Sci."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101969","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ocemod.2022.101969","article-title":"4D-Var data assimilation using satellite sea surface temperature to improve the tidally-driven interior ocean dynamics estimates in the Indo-Australian Basin","volume":"171","author":"Rayson","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ocean Model."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1762","DOI":"10.1175\/JTECH1792.1","article-title":"Methods for the reconstruction of vertical profiles from surface data: Multivariate analyses, residual GEM, and variable temporal signals in the North Pacific Ocean","volume":"22","author":"Nardelli","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"885","DOI":"10.5194\/os-8-885-2012","article-title":"Towards high resolution mapping of 3-D mesoscale dynamics from observations","volume":"8","author":"Guinehut","year":"2012","journal-title":"Ocean Sci."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dsr2.2012.04.012","article-title":"A new estimate of the global 3D geostrophic ocean circulation based on satellite data and in-situ measurements","volume":"77","author":"Mulet","year":"2012","journal-title":"Deep. Sea Res. Part II Top. Stud. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"859","DOI":"10.1002\/2014JC010466","article-title":"Detecting the surface salinity signature of Gulf Stream cold-core rings in Aquarius synergistic products","volume":"120","author":"Umbert","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Ocean."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/15\/7\/1722\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T19:01:16Z","timestamp":1760122876000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/15\/7\/1722"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,23]]},"references-count":94,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,4]]}},"alternative-id":["rs15071722"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs15071722","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2072-4292"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,23]]}}}