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However, there is a particular lack of research on the nonlinear effects of landscape patterns on ESs and scale dependence. Taking Huainan City (in China) as a case study, this study adopted the InVEST model to estimate four key ESs including carbon storage (CS), habitat quality (HQ), nitrogen export (NE), and water yield (WY). Then, we calculated the selected landscape metrics at multiple spatial scales. Furthermore, the gradient boosting decision tree (GBDT) model was developed to investigate the relative importance of landscape metrics in explaining ESs and their nonlinear interrelation. The results indicated that most of the selected landscape metrics were significantly correlated with ESs. The GBDT model, which can explore nonlinear relationships, performed better than the linear regression model in explaining the variations in ESs. The landscape-level metrics of the Shannon\u2019s diversity index (SHDI) and the contagion index (CONTAG) and the class-level metrics of the aggregation index (AI) and edge density (ED) were the most important variables that influenced ESs. The landscape metrics affected ESs within a certain range, and the nonlinear effects varied with scale.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs15071919","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,3]],"date-time":"2023-04-03T04:45:33Z","timestamp":1680497133000},"page":"1919","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":31,"title":["Nonlinear Effects of Landscape Patterns on Ecosystem Services at Multiple Scales Based on Gradient Boosting Decision Tree Models"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Cheng","family":"Li","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Architecture & Design, China University of Mining and Technology, Xuzhou 221116, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jie","family":"Zhao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Geography, Geomatics and Planning, Jiangsu Normal University, Xuzhou 221116, China"},{"name":"Belt & Road Institute, Jiangsu Normal University, Xuzhou 221009, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9072-9812","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Wei","family":"Hou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Chinese Academy of Surveying and Mapping, Lianhuachi West Road 28, Beijing 100830, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.1038\/387253a0","article-title":"The value of the world\u2019s ecosystem services and natural capital","volume":"387","author":"Costanza","year":"1997","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Daily, G.C. 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