{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,22]],"date-time":"2026-01-22T18:25:20Z","timestamp":1769106320846,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":37,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,3]],"date-time":"2023-04-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1680480000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization (NEDO)","award":["JPNP07015"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["JPNP07015"]}]},{"name":"New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization (NEDO)","award":["20H02129"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["20H02129"]}]},{"name":"Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology of Japan","award":["JPNP07015"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["JPNP07015"]}]},{"name":"Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology of Japan","award":["20H02129"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["20H02129"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>We have developed and deployed a 3D Interferometer-type Lightning Mapping Array (InLMA) for observing winter lightning in Japan. InLMA consists of three broadband interferometers installed at three stations with a distance from 3 to 5 km. At each interferometer station, three discone antennas were installed, forming a right triangle with a separation of 75 m along their two orthogonal baselines. The output of each InLMA antenna is passed through a 400 MHz low-pass filter and then recorded at 1 GS\/s with 16-bit accuracy. A new method has been proposed for finding 3D solutions of a lightning mapping system that consists of multiple interferometers. Using the InLMA, we have succeeded in mapping a positive cloud-to-ground (CG) lightning flash in winter, particularly its preliminary breakdown (PB) process. A study on individual PB pulse processes allows us to infer that each PB pulse process contains many small-scale discharges scattering in a height range of about 150 m. These small-scale discharges in a series of PB pulses appear to be continuous in space, though discontinuous in time. We have also examined the positive return stroke in the CG flash and found a 3D average return stroke speed of 7.5 \u00d7 107 m\/s.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs15071923","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,4]],"date-time":"2023-04-04T01:35:59Z","timestamp":1680572159000},"page":"1923","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["A 3D Interferometer-Type Lightning Mapping Array for Observation of Winter Lightning in Japan"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6813-3078","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Junchen","family":"Yang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical, Electronic and Computer Engineering, Gifu University, Gifu 501-1193, Japan"}]},{"given":"Daohong","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical, Electronic and Computer Engineering, Gifu University, Gifu 501-1193, Japan"}]},{"given":"Haitao","family":"Huang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical, Electronic and Computer Engineering, Gifu University, Gifu 501-1193, Japan"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3932-2803","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ting","family":"Wu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical, Electronic and Computer Engineering, Gifu University, Gifu 501-1193, Japan"}]},{"given":"Nobuyuki","family":"Takagi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical, Electronic and Computer Engineering, Gifu University, Gifu 501-1193, Japan"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6952-1435","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kazuo","family":"Yamamoto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical Engineering, Chubu University, Kasugai 487-0027, Japan"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"310","DOI":"10.1541\/ieejpes.138.310","article-title":"Charge Structure of Winter Thunderstorm in Japan: A Review and an Update","volume":"138","author":"Wang","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEJ Trans. 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