{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,9]],"date-time":"2025-11-09T03:51:48Z","timestamp":1762660308993,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":69,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,10]],"date-time":"2023-04-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1681084800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["42174081","42074110","GDNRC[2023]40","DD20190217","GZH201100307"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42174081","42074110","GDNRC[2023]40","DD20190217","GZH201100307"]}]},{"name":"Dedicated Fund for Marine Economic Development in Guangdong Province","award":["42174081","42074110","GDNRC[2023]40","DD20190217","GZH201100307"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42174081","42074110","GDNRC[2023]40","DD20190217","GZH201100307"]}]},{"name":"China Geological Survey Project","award":["42174081","42074110","GDNRC[2023]40","DD20190217","GZH201100307"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42174081","42074110","GDNRC[2023]40","DD20190217","GZH201100307"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Marine controlled-source electromagnetics (MCSEM) is an effective method to map the spatial distribution of gas hydrate and calculate gas hydrate saturation. An MCSEM survey is conducted in the Lingnan low uplift (LNLU), Qiongdongnan Basin (QDNB), South China Sea (SCS), and then the measured data are processed to obtain the geoelectric structure. The estimated gas hydrate stability zone (GHSZ) ranges from 0 to 320 mbsf, and shallow high-conductive sediments serving as gas hydrate caps are at depths ranging from 0 to 100 mbsf (meters below the seafloor). The 2D resistivity model reveals multiple high-resistivity bodies at depths ranging from 100 to 320 mbsf, and BSRs are at depths of 240 mbsf to 280 mbsf, indicating a transversely uneven gas hydrate reservoir in the study area. Moreover, two high-resistivity bodies are detected beneath the GHSZ, implying the presence of potential gas transport pathways. The gas hydrate saturation with a variation of 0\u201368.4% is calculated using the MCSEM resistivity and Archie\u2019s law. According to the resistivity model and geological data, the transversely uneven gas hydrate reservoir may be associated with multiple gas sources, including shallow biogenic gas and deep pyrolytic gas. The shallow biogenic gas is transported to the GHSZ via short-distance migration and free diffusion, and the deep pyrolytic gas is transported to the GHSZ via two microcracks. In addition, this case emphasizes that the dynamic accumulation of gas hydrate is an important factor causing reservoir heterogeneity.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs15082000","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,11]],"date-time":"2023-04-11T01:33:03Z","timestamp":1681176783000},"page":"2000","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["High-Resolution Resistivity Imaging of a Transversely Uneven Gas Hydrate Reservoir: A Case in the Qiongdongnan Basin, South China Sea"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Chenggong","family":"Liu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Geophysics and Information Technology, China University of Geosciences (Beijing), Beijing 100083, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jianen","family":"Jing","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Geophysics and Information Technology, China University of Geosciences (Beijing), Beijing 100083, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Qingxian","family":"Zhao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Marine Mineral Resources, Ministry of Natural Resources, Guangzhou 511458, China"},{"name":"National Engineering Research Center for Gas Hydrate Exploration and Development, Guangzhou 511458, China"},{"name":"Guangzhou Marine Geological Survey, China Geological Survey, Guangzhou 510075, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Xianhu","family":"Luo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Marine Mineral Resources, Ministry of Natural Resources, Guangzhou 511458, China"},{"name":"National Engineering Research Center for Gas Hydrate Exploration and Development, Guangzhou 511458, China"},{"name":"Guangzhou Marine Geological Survey, China Geological Survey, Guangzhou 510075, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Kai","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Geophysics and Information Technology, China University of Geosciences (Beijing), Beijing 100083, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Meng","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Geophysics and Information Technology, China University of Geosciences (Beijing), Beijing 100083, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ming","family":"Deng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Geophysics and Information Technology, China University of Geosciences (Beijing), Beijing 100083, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1029\/93RG00268","article-title":"Gas hydrates\u2014Geological perspective and global change","volume":"21","author":"Kvenvolden","year":"1993","journal-title":"Rev. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"19","article-title":"Prediction of gas sources of natural gas hydrate in the Qiongdongnan Basin, northern South China Sea, and its migration, accumulation and reservoir formation pattern","volume":"35","author":"He","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Gas Ind."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1016\/j.marpetgeo.2019.07.028","article-title":"Characteristics and dynamics of gas hydrate systems in the northwestern South China Sea\u2014Results of the fifth gas hydrate drilling expedition","volume":"110","author":"Wei","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mar. Pet. Geol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104774","DOI":"10.1016\/j.marpetgeo.2020.104774","article-title":"Geochemistry, origin and accumulation of natural gas hydrates in the Qiongdongnan Basin, South China Sea: Implications from site GMGS5-W08","volume":"123","author":"Lai","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mar. Pet. Geol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"548","DOI":"10.1002\/cjg2.519","article-title":"Distribution of gas hydrate stable zones and resource prediction in the Qiongdongnan Basin of the South China Sea","volume":"47","author":"Chen","year":"2004","journal-title":"Chin. J. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105151","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jseaes.2022.105151","article-title":"Double bottom simulating reflectors and tentative interpretation with implications for the dynamic accumulation of gas hydrates in the northern slope of the Qiongdongnan Basin, South China Sea","volume":"229","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Asian Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"351","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1468-8123.2010.00292.x","article-title":"Geophysical signatures associated with fluid flow and gas hydrate occurrence in a tectonically quiescent sequence, Qiongdongnan Basin, South China Sea","volume":"10","author":"Wang","year":"2010","journal-title":"Geofluids"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1016\/j.marpetgeo.2019.03.023","article-title":"Complex gas hydrate system in a gas chimney, South China Sea","volume":"104","author":"Ye","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mar. Pet. Geol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"789","DOI":"10.1080\/00206814.2018.1491014","article-title":"The formation mechanism of mud diapirs and gas chimneys and their relationship with natural gas hydrates: Insights from the deep-water area of Qiongdongnan Basin, northern South China Sea","volume":"62","author":"Zhang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. Geol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103924","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jseaes.2019.103924","article-title":"Chemical and structural characteristics of gas hydrates from the Haima cold seeps in the Qiongdongnan Basin of the South China Sea","volume":"182","author":"Fang","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Asian Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"1","article-title":"Gas Hydrate Accumulation and Occurrence Associated with Cold Seep Systems in the Northern South China Sea: An Overview","volume":"2021","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Geofluids"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103628","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dsr.2021.103628","article-title":"Quaternary deep-water sedimentary characteristics and their relationship with the gas hydrate accumulations in the Qiongdongnan Basin, Northwest South China Sea","volume":"177","author":"Meng","year":"2021","journal-title":"Deep. Sea Res. Part I Oceanogr. Res. Pap."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106042","DOI":"10.1016\/j.margeo.2019.106042","article-title":"Geological occurrence and accumulation mechanism of natural gas hydrates in the eastern Qiongdongnan Basin of the South China Sea: Insights from site GMGS5-W9-2018","volume":"418","author":"Liang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mar. Geol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110630","DOI":"10.1016\/j.petrol.2022.110630","article-title":"Sand-rich gas hydrate and shallow gas systems in the Qiongdongnan Basin, northern South China Sea","volume":"215","author":"Ren","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Pet. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"882080","DOI":"10.3389\/feart.2022.882080","article-title":"The Controlling Factors of the Natural Gas Hydrate Accumulation in the Songnan Low Uplift, Qiongdongnan Basin, China","volume":"10","author":"Yang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1153","DOI":"10.1002\/gj.4329","article-title":"Gas hydrate accumulation in shelf break setting: Example from the Qiongdongnan Basin in the northern slope of the South China Sea","volume":"57","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Geol. J."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"254","DOI":"10.1016\/j.marpetgeo.2016.02.007","article-title":"Geochemistry, origin and accumulation of natural gases in the deepwater area of the Qiongdongnan Basin, South China Sea","volume":"72","author":"Huang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mar. Pet. Geol."},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"1033","article-title":"Gas hydrate identification in non-BSR region, northern South China Sea","volume":"28","author":"Yang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Prog. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1013","DOI":"10.1016\/j.marpetgeo.2017.08.039","article-title":"Mapping the resistivity structure of Walker Ridge 313 in the Gulf of Mexico using the marine CSEM method","volume":"88","author":"Weitemeyer","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mar. Pet. Geol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Collett, T.S., and Ladd, J. (2000, January 19). Detection of gas hydrate with downhole logs and assessment of gas hydrate concentrations (saturations) and gas volumes on the Blake Ridge with electrical resistivity log data. Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, Scientific Results, College Station, TX, USA.","DOI":"10.2973\/odp.proc.sr.164.219.2000"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"675","DOI":"10.1007\/s10712-005-1830-3","article-title":"Marine Controlled Source Electromagnetics: Principles, Methodologies, Future Commercial Applications","volume":"26","author":"Edwards","year":"2005","journal-title":"Surv. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Schwalenberg, K., and Jegen, M. (2022). World Atlas of Submarine Gas Hydrates in Continental Margins, Springer."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3334","DOI":"10.1002\/2016JB013702","article-title":"Marine-controlled source electromagnetic study of methane seeps and gas hydrates at Opouawe Bank, Hikurangi Margin, New Zealand","volume":"122","author":"Schwalenberg","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L03304","DOI":"10.1029\/2005GL024896","article-title":"First results from a marine controlled-source electromagnetic survey to detect gas hydrates offshore Oregon","volume":"33","author":"Weitemeyer","year":"2006","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-246X.2011.05105.x","article-title":"A marine electromagnetic survey to detect gas hydrate at Hydrate Ridge, Oregon","volume":"187","author":"Weitemeyer","year":"2011","journal-title":"Geophys. J. Int."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1042","DOI":"10.1002\/2015GC006174","article-title":"Vulcan: A deep-towed CSEM receiver","volume":"17","author":"Constable","year":"2016","journal-title":"Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Goto, T.-n., Kasaya, T., Takagi, R., Sakurai, N., Harada, M., Sayanagi, K., and Kinoshita, M. (2009, January 11\u201314). Methane Hydrate Detection with Marine Electromagnetic Surveys: Case Studies off Japan Coast. Proceedings of the OCEANS 2009-EUROPE, Bremen, Germany.","DOI":"10.1109\/OCEANSE.2009.5278243"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"224","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jseaes.2013.12.001","article-title":"Marine controlled source electromagnetic method used for the gas hydrate investigation in the offshore area of SW Taiwan","volume":"92","author":"Hsu","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Asian Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jseaes.2018.01.018","article-title":"A marine controlled-source electromagnetic survey to detect gas hydrates in the Qiongdongnan Basin, South China Sea","volume":"171","author":"Jing","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Asian Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"645","article-title":"Evaluation of gas hydrate structures: Results from an experiment in the South China Sea using the marine controlled-source electromagnetic method","volume":"60","author":"Wang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Boll. Di Geofis. Teor. Ed. Appl."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1111","DOI":"10.1002\/2016GC006700","article-title":"Variations in pockmark composition at the Vestnesa Ridge: Insights from marine controlled source electromagnetic and seismic data","volume":"18","author":"Goswami","year":"2017","journal-title":"Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6797","DOI":"10.1002\/2015JB012344","article-title":"A joint electromagnetic and seismic study of an active pockmark within the hydrate stability field at the Vestnesa Ridge, West Svalbard margin","volume":"120","author":"Goswami","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1286","DOI":"10.1093\/gji\/ggw330","article-title":"Resistivity image beneath an area of active methane seeps in the west Svalbard continental slope","volume":"207","author":"Goswami","year":"2016","journal-title":"Geophys. J. Int."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1701","DOI":"10.1093\/gji\/ggy227","article-title":"High-resolution resistivity imaging of marine gas hydrate structures by combined inversion of CSEM towed and ocean-bottom receiver data","volume":"214","author":"Attias","year":"2018","journal-title":"Geophys. J. Int."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1093","DOI":"10.1093\/gji\/ggw188","article-title":"Controlled-source electromagnetic and seismic delineation of subseafloor fluid flow structures in a gas hydrate province, offshore Norway","volume":"206","author":"Attias","year":"2016","journal-title":"Geophys. J. Int."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104650","DOI":"10.1016\/j.marpetgeo.2020.104650","article-title":"Analysis of marine controlled source electromagnetic data for the assessment of gas hydrates in the Danube deep-sea fan, Black Sea","volume":"122","author":"Schwalenberg","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mar. Pet. Geol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"SH111","DOI":"10.1190\/INT-2018-0212.1","article-title":"3D controlled-source electromagnetic imaging of gas hydrates: Insights from the Pelotas Basin offshore Brazil","volume":"7","author":"Tharimela","year":"2019","journal-title":"Interpretation"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2019GL084703","DOI":"10.1029\/2019GL084703","article-title":"Characterization and Quantification of Gas Hydrates in the California Borderlands","volume":"47","author":"Kannberg","year":"2020","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103343","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijggc.2021.103343","article-title":"Porosity and free gas estimates from controlled source electromagnetic data at the Scanner Pockmark in the North Sea","volume":"109","author":"Gehrmann","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Greenh. Gas Control"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1016\/j.margeo.2015.01.002","article-title":"The high resolution sedimentary filling in Qiongdongnan Basin, Northern South China Sea","volume":"361","author":"Zhao","year":"2015","journal-title":"Mar. Geol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jseaes.2013.08.022","article-title":"The tectonic evolution of the Qiongdongnan Basin in the northern margin of the South China Sea","volume":"77","author":"Hu","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Asian Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"741","DOI":"10.1306\/02170908099","article-title":"Geochemistry, origin, and deep-water exploration potential of natural gases in the Pearl River Mouth and Qiongdongnan basins, South China Sea","volume":"93","author":"Zhu","year":"2009","journal-title":"AAPG Bull."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"340","DOI":"10.1111\/bre.12179","article-title":"Models of the rapid post-rift subsidence in the eastern Qiongdongnan Basin, South China Sea: Implications for the development of the deep thermal anomaly","volume":"29","author":"Shi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Basin Res."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"SA25","DOI":"10.1190\/INT-2015-0020.1","article-title":"Characterization of gas hydrate distribution using conventional 3D seismic data in the Pearl River Mouth Basin, South China Sea","volume":"4","author":"Wang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Interpretation"},{"key":"ref_45","first-page":"890","article-title":"Chronostratigraphic framework based on micro-paleontological data from drilling LS33a in deep water area of northern South China Sea","volume":"36","author":"Liu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Acta Sedimentol. Sin."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1954931","DOI":"10.1155\/2022\/1954931","article-title":"Natural Gas Migration Pathways and Their Influence on Gas Hydrate Enrichment in the Qiongdongnan Basin, South China Sea","volume":"2022","author":"Zuo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Geofluids"},{"key":"ref_47","first-page":"68","article-title":"Accumulation conditions of buried-hill hydrocarbon reservoirs on the Lingnan Low Uplift in the deep water areas of Qiongdongnan Basin","volume":"37","author":"Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mar. Geol. Front."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"438","DOI":"10.1190\/1.2193225","article-title":"Marine electromagnetic methods\u2014A new tool for offshore exploration","volume":"25","author":"Constable","year":"2006","journal-title":"Lead. Edge"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"WA3","DOI":"10.1190\/1.2432483","article-title":"An introduction to marine controlled-source electromagnetic methods for hydrocarbon exploration","volume":"72","author":"Constable","year":"2007","journal-title":"Geophysics"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1420","DOI":"10.1111\/1365-2478.12297","article-title":"A new marine controlled-source electromagnetic receiver with an acoustic telemetry modem and arm-folding mechanism","volume":"63","author":"Chen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Geophys. Prospect."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1403","DOI":"10.1111\/1365-2478.12329","article-title":"Two types of marine controlled source electromagnetic transmitters","volume":"63","author":"Wang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Geophys. Prospect."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E281","DOI":"10.1190\/geo2011-0380.1","article-title":"Marine CSEM of the Scarborough gas field, Part 1: Experimental design and data uncertainty","volume":"77","author":"Myer","year":"2012","journal-title":"Geophysics"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1190\/1.3506004","article-title":"The practical application of 2D inversion to marine controlled-source electromagnetic data","volume":"75","author":"Weitemeyer","year":"2010","journal-title":"Geophysics"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1190\/1.1442303","article-title":"Occam\u2019s inversion; a practical algorithm for generating smooth models from electromagnetic sounding data","volume":"52","author":"Constable","year":"1987","journal-title":"Geophysics"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"571","DOI":"10.1093\/gji\/ggw290","article-title":"MARE2DEM: A 2-D inversion code for controlled-source electromagnetic and magnetotelluric data","volume":"207","author":"Key","year":"2016","journal-title":"Geophys. J. Int."},{"key":"ref_56","first-page":"1619","article-title":"Main controlling factors and patterns of gas hydrate accumulation in the deep water area of Qiongdongnan Basin","volume":"42","author":"Xu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Acta Pet. Sin."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"200","DOI":"10.1190\/1.1438914","article-title":"Estimation of gas-hydrate concentration and free-gas saturation from log and seismic data","volume":"20","author":"Tinivella","year":"2001","journal-title":"Lead. Edge"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"582","DOI":"10.1190\/1.1468619","article-title":"Estimation of gas hydrate and free gas saturation, concentration, and distribution from seismic data","volume":"67","author":"Lu","year":"2002","journal-title":"Geophysics"},{"key":"ref_59","first-page":"1","article-title":"Geophysical Indicators of Gas Hydrate in the Northern Continental Margin, South China Sea","volume":"2011","author":"Wang","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Geol. Res."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.2118\/942054-G","article-title":"The electrical resistivity log as an aid in determining some reservoir characteristics","volume":"146","author":"Archie","year":"1942","journal-title":"Trans. AIME"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104676","DOI":"10.1016\/j.marpetgeo.2020.104676","article-title":"Fine-grained gas hydrate reservoir properties estimated from well logs and lab measurements at the Shenhu gas hydrate production test site, the northern slope of the South China sea","volume":"122","author":"Kang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mar. Pet. Geol."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104036","DOI":"10.1016\/j.marpetgeo.2019.104036","article-title":"Joint analysis of P-wave velocity and resistivity for morphology identification and quantification of gas hydrate","volume":"112","author":"Liu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mar. Pet. Geol."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1115","DOI":"10.1007\/s11600-022-00763-1","article-title":"The variation of free gas distribution within the seeping seafloor hydrate stability zone and its link to hydrate formations in the Qiongdongnan Basin","volume":"70","author":"Deng","year":"2022","journal-title":"Acta Geophys."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1080\/01969727308546046","article-title":"A fuzzy relative of the ISODATA process and its use in detecting compact well-separated clusters","volume":"3","author":"Dunn","year":"1973","journal-title":"J. Cybern."},{"key":"ref_65","first-page":"2975","article-title":"Sedimentary evolution since Quaternary in the Shenhu hydrate drilling area, northern South China Sea","volume":"58","author":"Su","year":"2015","journal-title":"Chin. J. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104810","DOI":"10.1016\/j.marpetgeo.2020.104810","article-title":"Typical characteristics of fracture-filling hydrate-charged reservoirs caused by heterogeneous fluid flow in the Qiongdongnan Basin, northern south China sea","volume":"124","author":"Deng","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mar. Pet. Geol."},{"key":"ref_67","first-page":"73","article-title":"The occurrence of the gas hydrates in the southern uplift zone of the Qiongdongnan Basin","volume":"37","author":"Liu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sediment. Geol. Tethyan Geol."},{"key":"ref_68","first-page":"211","article-title":"The free gas zone beneath gas hydrate bearing sediments and its link to fluid flow: 3-D seismic imaging offshore mid-Norway","volume":"291\u2013294","author":"Mienert","year":"2012","journal-title":"Mar. Geol."},{"key":"ref_69","first-page":"355","article-title":"Distribution characteristics of abnormal pressure in central depression belt, deepwater area, Qiongdongnan (Southeast Hainan) Basin","volume":"35","author":"Wang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Acta Geosci. Sin."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/15\/8\/2000\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T19:13:18Z","timestamp":1760123598000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/15\/8\/2000"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,10]]},"references-count":69,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,4]]}},"alternative-id":["rs15082000"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs15082000","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2072-4292"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,10]]}}}