{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T02:05:16Z","timestamp":1760148316345,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":27,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,19]],"date-time":"2023-04-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1681862400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Key Research and Development Program of China","award":["2022YFB3902100","CBAS2022IRP02","41590853"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022YFB3902100","CBAS2022IRP02","41590853"]}]},{"name":"Innovative Research Program of the International Research Center of Big Data for Sustainable Development Goals","award":["2022YFB3902100","CBAS2022IRP02","41590853"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022YFB3902100","CBAS2022IRP02","41590853"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2022YFB3902100","CBAS2022IRP02","41590853"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022YFB3902100","CBAS2022IRP02","41590853"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>With the rapid development of Earth system science, a new understanding of the complete Earth system has highlighted the crucial importance of integrated observations, especially in research involving large-scale geoscience phenomena. As an active sensor with all-time and all-weather capabilities, synthetic aperture radar (SAR) has been widely used in recent decades for Earth observation. However, the existing spaceborne, airborne, and ground-based SAR systems have difficulty providing temporally consistent and spatially continuous Earth observation data on a global scale. As Earth\u2019s only natural satellite, the Moon is a very promising Earth observation platform. By deploying a transmitter on the Moon and a receiver on the high-orbit satellite, a Moon-based\/spaceborne bistatic synthetic aperture radar (MS-BiSAR) can be formed. In this paper, the MS-BiSAR geometric model of Earth observation was established using ephemeris and orbit propagators with reference system transformations, and three different MS-BiSAR configurations were used to calculate and analyze their geometric characteristics and Earth observation coverage. The results show that with the advantage of wide swaths, continuous observation capabilities, and large coverage, such an MS-BiSAR could significantly contribute to monitoring and understanding large-scale geoscience phenomena.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs15082151","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,20]],"date-time":"2023-04-20T01:42:39Z","timestamp":1681954959000},"page":"2151","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["Analysis of Geometric Characteristics and Coverage for Moon-Based\/Spaceborne Bistatic SAR Earth Observation"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1770-1818","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ke","family":"Zhang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Digital Earth Science, Aerospace Information Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100094, China"},{"name":"International Research Center of Big Data for Sustainable Development Goals, Beijing 100094, China"},{"name":"University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0337-1862","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Huadong","family":"Guo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Digital Earth Science, Aerospace Information Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100094, China"},{"name":"International Research Center of Big Data for Sustainable Development Goals, Beijing 100094, China"}]},{"given":"Di","family":"Jiang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Technology in Geo-Spatial Information Processing and Application System, Aerospace Information Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100094, China"}]},{"given":"Chunming","family":"Han","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Digital Earth Science, Aerospace Information Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100094, China"},{"name":"International Research Center of Big Data for Sustainable Development Goals, Beijing 100094, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Guo, H.D. (2000). Theory and Application of Earth Observation by Radar, Science Press."},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"862","article-title":"New generation SAR for Earth environment observation","volume":"51","author":"Huadong","year":"2022","journal-title":"Acta Geod. Cartogr. Sin."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"916","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1196263","article-title":"Earth system science for global sustainability: Grand challenges","volume":"330","author":"Reid","year":"2010","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7750","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2014.2318171","article-title":"System Design for Geosynchronous Synthetic Aperture Radar Missions","volume":"52","author":"Hobbs","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Long, T., Hu, C., Ding, Z., Dong, X., Tian, W., and Zeng, T. (2018). Geosynchronous SAR: System and Signal Processing, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-10-7254-3"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.1109\/TCYB.2021.3090662","article-title":"Mission planning for energy-efficient passive UAV radar imaging system based on substage division collaborative search","volume":"53","author":"Sun","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Cybern."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"343","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2015.2457034","article-title":"Inclined geosynchronous spaceborne\u2013airborne bistatic SAR: Performance analysis and mission design","volume":"54","author":"Sun","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2036","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scib.2022.08.014","article-title":"Moon-based Earth observation","volume":"67","author":"Guo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Bull."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2431","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTARS.2017.2711061","article-title":"Simulation Study of Geometric Characteristics and Coverage for Moon-Based Earth Observation in the Electro-Optical Region","volume":"10","author":"Ren","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Appl. Earth Obs. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"238","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aax9908","article-title":"China\u2019s present and future lunar exploration program","volume":"365","author":"Li","year":"2019","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1274","DOI":"10.1093\/nsr\/nwz120","article-title":"China\u2019s lunar and deep space exploration: Touching the Moon and exploring the universe","volume":"6","author":"Zhao","year":"2019","journal-title":"Natl. Sci. Rev."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Smith, M., Craig, D., Herrmann, N., Mahoney, E., Krezel, J., McIntyre, N., and Goodliff, K. (2020, January 7\u201314). The Artemis Program: An Overview of NASA\u2019s Activities to Return Humans to the Moon. Proceedings of the 2020 IEEE Aerospace Conference (Aeroconf 2020), Big Sky, MT, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/AERO47225.2020.9172323"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"678","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actaastro.2016.06.024","article-title":"A Chang\u2019e-4 mission concept and vision of future Chinese lunar exploration activities","volume":"127","author":"Wang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Acta Astronaut."},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"716","article-title":"Earth system observation from space: From scientific satellite to Moon-based platform","volume":"20","author":"Guo","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"546","DOI":"10.1080\/17538947.2017.1356879","article-title":"Moon-based Earth observation: Scientific concept and potential applications","volume":"11","author":"Guo","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Digit. Earth"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5868","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2019.2902842","article-title":"Effects of the Earth\u2019s Curvature and Lunar Revolution on the Imaging Performance of the Moon-Based Synthetic Aperture Radar","volume":"57","author":"Xu","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ding, Y., Guo, H., Liu, G., Han, C., Shang, H., Ruan, Z., and Lv, M. (2019). Constructing a high-accuracy geometric model for Moon-based Earth observation. Remote Sens., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11222611"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, G., Guo, H., Ding, Y., Shang, H., Lv, M., and Zhang, K. (2021). Influence of topography on the site selection of a Moon-based Earth observation station. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21217198"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guo, H.D., Fu, W.X., and Liu, G. (2019). Scientific Satellite and Moon-Based Earth Observation for Global Change, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-13-8031-0"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, T., Hajnsek, I., and Chen, K.-S. (2021). Sensitivity analysis of bistatic scattering for soil moisture retrieval. Remote Sens., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13020188"},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"42","article-title":"The planetary and lunar ephemerides DE430 and DE431","volume":"196","author":"Folkner","year":"2014","journal-title":"Interplanet. Netw. Prog. Rep."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hoots, F.R., and Roehrich, R.L. (1980). Models for Propagation of NORAD Element Sets, Aerospace Defense Command Peterson AFB CO Office of Astrodynamics.","DOI":"10.21236\/ADA093554"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"B27","DOI":"10.1115\/1.1451162","article-title":"Satellite orbits: Models, methods, and applications","volume":"55","author":"Montenbruck","year":"2002","journal-title":"Appl. Mech. Rev."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, G., Guo, H., Jiang, H., Han, C., Ding, Y., and Wu, K. (2022). Analysis of Comprehensive Multi-Factors on Station Selection for Moon-Based Earth Observation. Remote Sens., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14215404"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sui, Y., Guo, H., Liu, G., and Ren, Y. (2019). Analysis of long-term Moon-based observation characteristics for Arctic and Antarctic. Remote Sens., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11232805"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3458","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTARS.2019.2928439","article-title":"An Analysis of Spatiotemporal Baseline and Effective Spatial Coverage for Lunar-Based SAR Repeat-Track Interferometry","volume":"12","author":"Dong","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Appl. Earth Obs. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1007\/s11004-009-9257-x","article-title":"Measurement of Area on a Sphere Using Fibonacci and Latitude-Longitude Lattices","volume":"42","author":"Gonzalez","year":"2010","journal-title":"Math. Geosci."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/15\/8\/2151\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T19:18:55Z","timestamp":1760123935000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/15\/8\/2151"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,19]]},"references-count":27,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,4]]}},"alternative-id":["rs15082151"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs15082151","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2072-4292"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,19]]}}}