{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T02:06:51Z","timestamp":1760148411142,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":40,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,27]],"date-time":"2023-04-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1682553600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>To obtain the accurate time difference of arrival (TDOA) and frequency difference of arrival (FDOA) for passive localization in an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) swarm, UAV swarm network synchronization is necessary. However, most of the traditional distributed time synchronization protocols are based on iteration, which hinders efficiency improvement. High communication costs and long convergence times are often required in large-scale UAV swarm networks. This paper presents a neighborhood selection-all selection (NS-AS) synchronization mechanism-based moving source localization method for UAV swarms. First, the NS-AS synchronization mechanism is introduced, to model the UAV swarm network synchronization process. Specifically, the UAV neighbors are first grouped by sector, and the most representative neighbors are selected from each sector for the state update calculation. When the UAV swarm network reaches a fully connected state, the synchronization mechanism is switched to select all neighbors, to improve the convergence speed. Then, the TDOA-FDOA joint localization algorithm is employed to locate the moving radiation source. Through simulation, the effectiveness of the proposed method is verified by the system convergence and localization performance under different parameters. Experimental results show that the synchronization mechanism based on NS-AS effectively improves the convergence speed of the system while ensuring the accuracy of moving radiation source localization.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs15092313","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,28]],"date-time":"2023-04-28T01:33:40Z","timestamp":1682645620000},"page":"2313","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Neighborhood Selection Synchronization Mechanism-Based Moving Source Localization Using UAV Swarm"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Yongkun","family":"Zhou","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"The School of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen 518000, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-4387-8451","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Wei","family":"Gao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The School of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen 518000, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9805-3028","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bin","family":"Rao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The School of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen 518000, China"}]},{"given":"Bowen","family":"Ding","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The School of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen 518000, China"}]},{"given":"Wei","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The School of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen 518000, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183856","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2020.3028865","article-title":"UAV swarm intelligence: Recent advances and future trends","volume":"8","author":"Zhou","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"908","DOI":"10.1177\/0142331214566026","article-title":"Optimal trajectories for two UAVs in localization of multiple RF sources","volume":"38","author":"Shahidian","year":"2016","journal-title":"Trans. Inst. Meas. Control"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"496","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-01168-0_44","article-title":"Algorithm for positioning in non-line-of-sight conditions using unmanned aerial vehicles","volume":"Volume 17","author":"Fokin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Internet of Things, Smart Spaces and Next Generation Networks and Systems"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhou, Y., Song, D., Ding, B., Rao, B., Su, M., and Wang, W. (2022). Ant colony pheromone mechanism-based passive localization using UAV swarm. Remote Sens., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14122944"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"70117","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2019.2918299","article-title":"Optimal configuration analysis of AOA localization and optimal heading angles generation method for UAV swarms","volume":"7","author":"Wang","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"9346142","article-title":"Performance analysis of AOA-Based localization using the LS approach: Explicit expression of mean-squared error","volume":"11","author":"Son","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Sens."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.23919\/JCC.2021.12.004","article-title":"Passive localization of multiple sources using joint RSS and AOA measurements in spectrum sharing system","volume":"18","author":"Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"China Commun."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sigpro.2017.09.014","article-title":"A novel algebraic solution for moving target localization in multi-transmitter multi-receiver passive radar","volume":"143","author":"Zhao","year":"2018","journal-title":"Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rodrigues, W.C., and Apolin\u00e1rio, J.A. (2020, January 25\u201328). An on-the-fly FDOA-based target localization system. Proceedings of the 2020 IEEE 11th Latin American Symposium on Circuits & Systems (LASCAS), San Jose, Costa Rica.","DOI":"10.1109\/LASCAS45839.2020.9068968"},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"3326","article-title":"Compressive TDOA estimation: Cram\u00e9r-Rao bound and incoherent processing","volume":"56","author":"Cao","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1186\/s13634-019-0629-1","article-title":"On the use of calibration emitters for TDOA source localization in the presence of synchronization clock bias and sensor location errors","volume":"2019","author":"Wang","year":"2019","journal-title":"EURASIP J. Adv. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2083","DOI":"10.1109\/TAES.2019.2943786","article-title":"A multidimensional TDOA association algorithm for joint multitarget localization and multisensor synchronization","volume":"56","author":"Ge","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Aerosp. Electron. Syst."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3107","DOI":"10.1109\/TCOMM.2020.2973961","article-title":"TDOA-based joint synchronization and localization algorithm for asynchronous wireless sensor networks","volume":"68","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Commun."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.23919\/JCC.2020.02.009","article-title":"Passive localization of signal source based on UAVs in complex environment","volume":"17","author":"Wan","year":"2020","journal-title":"China Commun."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ai, L., Pang, M., Shan, C., Sun, C., Kim, Y., and Zhou, B. (2021). A novel joint TDOA\/FDOA passive localization scheme using interval intersection algorithm. Information, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/info12090371"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"752","DOI":"10.1109\/LCOMM.2019.2899615","article-title":"TDOA-\/FDOA-based adaptive active target localization using iterated dual-EKF algorithm","volume":"23","author":"Lee","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Lett."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sigpro.2021.108113","article-title":"Moving source localization using TOA and FOA measurements with imperfect synchronization","volume":"186","author":"Shi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"214","DOI":"10.1109\/TC.2006.25","article-title":"Global clock synchronization in sensor networks","volume":"55","author":"Li","year":"2006","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Comput."},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"133","article-title":"A fast clock synchronization algorithm for wireless sensor networks","volume":"92","author":"Xie","year":"2018","journal-title":"Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ganeriwal, S., Kumar, R., and Srivastava, M.B. (2003, January 5\u20137). Timing-sync protocol for sensor networks. Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Embedded Networked Sensor Systems, Los Angeles, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/958491.958508"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2387","DOI":"10.1109\/TVT.2015.2417810","article-title":"CESP: A low-power high-accuracy time synchronization protocol","volume":"65","author":"Gong","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1206","DOI":"10.1109\/LSP.2018.2847231","article-title":"A consensus-based time synchronization scheme with low overhead for clustered wireless sensor networks","volume":"25","author":"Wang","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Signal Process. Lett."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1222","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2016.2576923","article-title":"PulseSS: A pulse-coupled synchronization and scheduling protocol for clustered wireless sensor networks","volume":"3","author":"Gentz","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"404","article-title":"Cluster-based consensus time synchronization for wireless sensor networks","volume":"15","author":"Wu","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schenato, L., and Gamba, G. (2007, January 12\u201314). A distributed consensus protocol for clock synchronization in wireless sensor network. Proceedings of the 2007 46th IEEE Conference on Decision and Control, New Orleans, LA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/CDC.2007.4434671"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1878","DOI":"10.1016\/j.automatica.2011.06.012","article-title":"Average timesynch: A consensus-based protocol for clock synchronization in wireless sensor networks","volume":"47","author":"Schenato","year":"2011","journal-title":"Automatica"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1120","DOI":"10.1109\/TII.2019.2936518","article-title":"Fast convergence time synchronization in wireless sensor networks based on average consensus","volume":"16","author":"Shi","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Inform."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6387","DOI":"10.1109\/TSP.2013.2286102","article-title":"SATS: Secure average-consensus-based time synchronization in wireless sensor networks","volume":"61","author":"He","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1109\/TAC.2004.841888","article-title":"Stability of multiagent systems with time-dependent communication links","volume":"50","author":"Moreau","year":"2005","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Autom. Control"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132937","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2019.2939207","article-title":"A Distributed Consensus Protocol Based on Neighbor Selection Strategies for Multi-Agent Systems Convergence","volume":"7","author":"Xie","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhou, Y., Song, D., Ding, B., Rao, B., Su, M., and Wang, W. (2022). Distributed cooperative jamming with neighborhood selection strategy for unmanned aerial vehicle swarms. Electronics, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics11020184"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1226","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevLett.75.1226","article-title":"Novel type of phase transition in a system of self-driven particles","volume":"75","author":"Vicsek","year":"1995","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. Lett."},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"2869","article-title":"Hybrid control for connectivity preserving flocking","volume":"54","author":"Zavlanos","year":"1995","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. Lett."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1416","DOI":"10.1109\/TRO.2008.2006233","article-title":"Distributed connectivity control of mobile networks","volume":"24","author":"Zavlanos","year":"2008","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Robot."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1289","DOI":"10.1109\/TAC.2006.878713","article-title":"Robust rendezvous for mobile autonomous agents via proximity graphs in arbitrary dimensions","volume":"51","author":"Bullo","year":"2006","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Autom. Control"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Spanos, D.P., and Murray, R.M. (2004, January 14\u201317). Robust connectivity of networked vehicles. Proceedings of the 2004 43rd IEEE Conference on Decision and Control (CDC), Nassau, Bahamas.","DOI":"10.1109\/CDC.2004.1428904"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"577","DOI":"10.1137\/120901866","article-title":"Heterophilious dynamics enhances consensus","volume":"56","author":"Motsch","year":"2014","journal-title":"SIAM Rev."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1145\/844128.844143","article-title":"Fine-grained network time synchronization using reference broadcasts","volume":"36","author":"Elson","year":"2002","journal-title":"ACM SIGOPS Oper. Syst. Rev."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1103\/RevModPhys.77.137","article-title":"The Kuramoto model: A simple paradigm for synchronization phenomena","volume":"77","author":"Bonilla","year":"2005","journal-title":"Rev. Mod. Phys."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2453","DOI":"10.1109\/TSP.2004.831921","article-title":"An accurate algebraic solution for moving source location using TDOA and FDOA measurements","volume":"52","author":"Ho","year":"2004","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Signal Process."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/15\/9\/2313\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T19:24:42Z","timestamp":1760124282000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/15\/9\/2313"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,27]]},"references-count":40,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,5]]}},"alternative-id":["rs15092313"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs15092313","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2072-4292"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,27]]}}}