{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,23]],"date-time":"2026-03-23T15:10:58Z","timestamp":1774278658778,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":90,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,8]],"date-time":"2023-05-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1683504000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"the Third Xinjiang Scientific Expedition Program","award":["2021xjkk0701"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2021xjkk0701"]}]},{"name":"the Third Xinjiang Scientific Expedition Program","award":["XDA19030301"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["XDA19030301"]}]},{"name":"the Strategic Priority Research Program of the Chinese Academy of Sciences","award":["2021xjkk0701"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2021xjkk0701"]}]},{"name":"the Strategic Priority Research Program of the Chinese Academy of Sciences","award":["XDA19030301"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["XDA19030301"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The arid terrestrial ecosystem carbon cycle is one of the most important parts of the global carbon cycle, but it is vulnerable to external disturbances. As the most direct factor affecting the carbon cycle, how land cover change affects vegetation carbon sources\/sinks in arid terrestrial ecosystems remains unclear. In this study, we chose the arid region of northwest China (ARNWC) as the study area and used net ecosystem productivity (NEP) as an indicator of vegetation carbon source\/sink. Subsequently, we described the spatial distribution and temporal dynamics of vegetation carbon sources\/sinks in the ARNWC from 2001\u20132018 by combining the Carnegie-Ames-Stanford Approach (CASA) and a soil microbial heterotrophic respiration (RH) model and assessed the effects of land cover change on them through modeling scenario design. We found that land cover change had an obvious positive impact on vegetation carbon sinks. Among them, the effect of land cover type conversion contributed to an increase in total NEP of approximately 1.77 Tg C (reaching 15.55% of the original value), and after simultaneously considering the effect of vegetation growth enhancement, it contributed to an increase in total NEP of approximately 14.75 Tg C (reaching 129.61% of the original value). For different land cover types, cropland consistently contributed the most to the increment of NEP, and the regeneration of young and middle-aged forests also led to a significant increase in forest carbon sinks. Thus, our findings provide a reference for assessing the effects of land cover change on vegetation carbon sinks, and they indicated that cropland expansion and anthropogenic management dominated the growth of vegetation carbon sequestration in the ARNWC, that afforestation also benefits the carbon sink capacity of terrestrial ecosystems, and that attention should be paid to restoring and protecting native vegetation in forestland and grassland regions in the future.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs15092471","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,9]],"date-time":"2023-05-09T01:06:28Z","timestamp":1683594388000},"page":"2471","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":16,"title":["Effects of Land Cover Change on Vegetation Carbon Source\/Sink in Arid Terrestrial Ecosystems of Northwest China, 2001\u20132018"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Haiyang","family":"Tu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Desert and Oasis Ecology, Xinjiang Institute of Ecology and Geography, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Urumqi 830011, China"},{"name":"University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"}]},{"given":"Guli","family":"Jiapaer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Desert and Oasis Ecology, Xinjiang Institute of Ecology and Geography, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Urumqi 830011, China"},{"name":"University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"},{"name":"CAS Research Center for Ecology and Environment of Central Asia, Urumqi 830011, China"}]},{"given":"Tao","family":"Yu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Desert and Oasis Ecology, Xinjiang Institute of Ecology and Geography, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Urumqi 830011, China"},{"name":"University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"},{"name":"Department of Geography, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium"}]},{"given":"Liancheng","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Desert and Oasis Ecology, Xinjiang Institute of Ecology and Geography, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Urumqi 830011, China"},{"name":"University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"}]},{"given":"Bojian","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Desert and Oasis Ecology, Xinjiang Institute of Ecology and Geography, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Urumqi 830011, China"},{"name":"University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"}]},{"given":"Kaixiong","family":"Lin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Desert and Oasis Ecology, Xinjiang Institute of Ecology and Geography, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Urumqi 830011, China"},{"name":"University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"}]},{"given":"Xu","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Desert and Oasis Ecology, Xinjiang Institute of Ecology and Geography, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Urumqi 830011, China"},{"name":"University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1917","DOI":"10.5194\/essd-14-1917-2022","article-title":"Global Carbon Budget 2021","volume":"14","author":"Friedlingstein","year":"2022","journal-title":"Earth Syst. Sci. Data"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3269","DOI":"10.5194\/essd-12-3269-2020","article-title":"Global Carbon Budget 2020","volume":"12","author":"Friedlingstein","year":"2020","journal-title":"Earth Syst. Sci. Data"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gloplacha.2014.04.003","article-title":"Geographical statistical assessments of carbon fluxes in terrestrial ecosystems of China: Results from upscaling network observations","volume":"118","author":"Zhu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Glob. Planet. Chang."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agrformet.2018.02.007","article-title":"A new estimation of China\u2019s net ecosystem productivity based on eddy covariance measurements and a model tree ensemble approach","volume":"253\u2013254","author":"Yao","year":"2018","journal-title":"Agric. For. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1341","DOI":"10.1007\/s11430-007-0049-1","article-title":"Terrestrial vegetation carbon sinks in China, 1981\u20132000","volume":"50","author":"Fang","year":"2007","journal-title":"Sci. China Ser. D-Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"574","DOI":"10.1126\/science.285.5427.574","article-title":"The US carbon budget: Contributions from land-use change","volume":"285","author":"Houghton","year":"1999","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1016\/S0959-3780(01)00007-3","article-title":"The causes of land-use and land-cover change: Moving beyond the myths","volume":"11","author":"Lambin","year":"2001","journal-title":"Glob. Environ. Chang. Hum. Policy Dimens."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"570","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1111772","article-title":"Global consequences of land use","volume":"309","author":"Foley","year":"2005","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1092","DOI":"10.1002\/2014JG002616","article-title":"Effects of land use\/land cover and climate changes on terrestrial net primary productivity in the Yangtze River Basin, China, from 2001 to 2010","volume":"119","author":"Zhang","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Biogeosci."},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"1","article-title":"Ponder on the issues of water resources in the arid region of northwest China","volume":"35","author":"Chen","year":"2012","journal-title":"Arid Land Geogr."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114046","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-9326\/abbde9","article-title":"Contributions of ecological programs to vegetation restoration in arid and semiarid China","volume":"15","author":"Cai","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108183","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agrformet.2020.108183","article-title":"Contributions of climate change, elevated atmospheric CO2 and human activities to ET and GPP trends in the Three-North Region of China","volume":"295","author":"Xie","year":"2020","journal-title":"Agric. For. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112387","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jenvman.2021.112387","article-title":"Labor force transfer, vegetation restoration and ecosystem service in the Qilian Mountains","volume":"288","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1016\/j.catena.2013.11.020","article-title":"Effects of ecological restoration projects on land use and land cover change and its influences on territorial NPP in Xinjiang, China","volume":"115","author":"Yang","year":"2014","journal-title":"CATENA"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108835","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolind.2022.108835","article-title":"Attributing vegetation change in an arid and cold watershed with complex ecosystems in northwest China","volume":"138","author":"Bai","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ecol. Indic."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"796","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2018.07.139","article-title":"Potential and environmental control of carbon sequestration in major ecosystems across arid and semi-arid regions in China","volume":"645","author":"Gu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12345","DOI":"10.1002\/2015JD023618","article-title":"Potential impacts of climate change on vegetation dynamics in Central Asia","volume":"120","author":"Li","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"330","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2019.06.089","article-title":"The response of carbon stocks of drylands in Central Asia to changes of CO2 and climate during past 35 years","volume":"687","author":"Zhu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-020-2035-0","article-title":"Asynchronous carbon sink saturation in African and Amazonian tropical forests","volume":"579","author":"Hubau","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"988","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1201609","article-title":"A Large and Persistent Carbon Sink in the World\u2019s Forests","volume":"333","author":"Pan","year":"2011","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4021","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1700291115","article-title":"Carbon pools in China\u2019s terrestrial ecosystems: New estimates based on an intensive field survey","volume":"115","author":"Tang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eabe9829","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.abe9829","article-title":"Changes in global terrestrial live biomass over the 21st century","volume":"7","author":"Xu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Adv."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1327","DOI":"10.5194\/essd-10-1327-2018","article-title":"Upscaled diurnal cycles of land-atmosphere fluxes: A new global half-hourly data product","volume":"10","author":"Bodesheim","year":"2018","journal-title":"Earth Syst. Sci. Data"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"767","DOI":"10.1002\/2016JG003640","article-title":"New data-driven estimation of terrestrial CO2 fluxes in Asia using a standardized database of eddy covariance measurements, remote sensing data, and support vector regression","volume":"122","author":"Ichii","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Biogeosci."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1343","DOI":"10.5194\/bg-17-1343-2020","article-title":"Scaling carbon fluxes from eddy covariance sites to globe: Synthesis and evaluation of the FLUXCOM approach","volume":"17","author":"Jung","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biogeosciences"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-019-1078-6","article-title":"Five decades of northern land carbon uptake revealed by the interhemispheric CO2 gradient","volume":"568","author":"Ciais","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10724","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms10724","article-title":"Top-down assessment of the Asian carbon budget since the mid 1990s","volume":"7","author":"Thompson","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"720","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-020-2849-9","article-title":"Large Chinese land carbon sink estimated from atmospheric carbon dioxide data","volume":"586","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5002","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-9326\/aa63fa","article-title":"Benchmarking carbon fluxes of the ISIMIP2a biome models","volume":"12","author":"Chang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Environ. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"739","DOI":"10.1038\/s41561-018-0204-7","article-title":"Lower land-use emissions responsible for increased net land carbon sink during the slow warming period","volume":"11","author":"Piao","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"414","article-title":"Implications and estimations of four terrestrial productivity parameters","volume":"25","author":"Fang","year":"2001","journal-title":"Chin. J. Plant Ecol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103010","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gloplacha.2019.103010","article-title":"Evaluating impacts of climate change on net ecosystem productivity (NEP) of global different forest types based on an individual tree-based model FORCCHN and remote sensing","volume":"182","author":"Zhao","year":"2019","journal-title":"Glob. Planet. Chang."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5263","DOI":"10.1029\/93JD03221","article-title":"Methodology for the estimation of terrestrial net primary production from remotely sensed data","volume":"99","author":"Ruimy","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108207","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agrformet.2020.108207","article-title":"Vegetation structural change and CO2 fertilization more than offset gross primary production decline caused by reduced solar radiation in China","volume":"296","author":"Chen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Agric. For. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2247","DOI":"10.1175\/JCLI-D-12-00150.1","article-title":"GFDL\u2019s ESM2 Global Coupled Climate-Carbon Earth System Models. Part II: Carbon System Formulation and Baseline Simulation Characteristics","volume":"26","author":"Dunne","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"190","DOI":"10.1016\/j.catena.2014.10.027","article-title":"Changes of NPP and their relationship to climate factors based on the transformation of different scales in Gansu, China","volume":"125","author":"Liu","year":"2015","journal-title":"CATENA"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2115283118","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2115283118","article-title":"Variability of ecosystem carbon source from microbial respiration is controlled by rainfall dynamics","volume":"118","author":"Huang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"521","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1744-7909.2009.00813.x","article-title":"Carbon Balance in an Alpine Steppe in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau","volume":"51","author":"Pei","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Integr. Plant Biol."},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"5846","article-title":"Spatio-temporal change of precipitation in arid region of the Northwest China","volume":"35","author":"Yao","year":"2015","journal-title":"Acta Ecol. Sin."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, H.J., Li, Z., Niu, Y., Li, X.C., Cao, L., Feng, R., He, Q.N., and Pan, Y.P. (2022). Evolution and Climate Drivers of NDVI of Natural Vegetation during the Growing Season in the Arid Region of Northwest China. Forests, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/f13071082"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1931","DOI":"10.5194\/essd-11-1931-2019","article-title":"1 km monthly temperature and precipitation dataset for China from 1901 to 2017","volume":"11","author":"Peng","year":"2019","journal-title":"Earth Syst. Sci. Data"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1905","DOI":"10.5194\/essd-11-1905-2019","article-title":"A 16-year dataset (2000\u20132015) of high-resolution (3 h, 10 km) global surface solar radiation","volume":"11","author":"Tang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Earth Syst. Sci. Data"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"170191","DOI":"10.1038\/sdata.2017.191","article-title":"Data Descriptor: TerraClimate, a high-resolution global dataset of monthly climate and climatic water balance from 1958\u20132015","volume":"5","author":"Abatzoglou","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Data"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"268","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1466-8238.2009.00502.x","article-title":"Large-scale pattern of biomass partitioning across China\u2019s grasslands","volume":"19","author":"Yang","year":"2010","journal-title":"Glob. Ecol. Biogeogr."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"545","DOI":"10.17521\/cjpe.2006.0072","article-title":"Carbon contents and its vertical distribution in alpine grasslands in Bayinbulak, middle stretch of the Tianshan Mountains of Xinjiang","volume":"30","author":"Mohammat","year":"2006","journal-title":"Chin. J. Plant Ecol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"811","DOI":"10.1029\/93GB02725","article-title":"Terrestrial ecosystem production\u2014A process model-based on global satellite and surface data","volume":"7","author":"Potter","year":"1993","journal-title":"Glob. Biogeochem. Cycles"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"413","DOI":"10.17521\/cjpe.2007.0050","article-title":"Estimation of net primary productivity of Chinese terrestrial vegetation based on remote sensing","volume":"31","author":"Zhu","year":"2007","journal-title":"Chin. J. Plant Ecol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1016\/0034-4257(92)90131-3","article-title":"Vegetation canopy par absorptance and the normalized difference vegetation index\u2014An assessment using the sail model","volume":"39","author":"Goward","year":"1992","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107772","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agwat.2022.107772","article-title":"Quantifying nutrient stoichiometry and radiation use efficiency of two maize cultivars under various water and fertilizer management practices in northwest China","volume":"271","author":"Yan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Agric. Water Manag."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"457","DOI":"10.1007\/s11434-006-0457-1","article-title":"Simulation of maximum light use efficiency for some typical vegetation types in China","volume":"51","author":"Zhu","year":"2006","journal-title":"Chin. Sci. Bull."},{"key":"ref_51","first-page":"39","article-title":"Improving the CASA model and applying it to estimate the net primary productivity of arid region ecology system","volume":"28","author":"Feng","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Arid Land Resour. Environ."},{"key":"ref_52","first-page":"181","article-title":"Remote sensing estimation and the reasons for temporal-spatial differences of vegetation net primary productivity in arid region of Northwest China","volume":"36","author":"Jiao","year":"2017","journal-title":"Chin. J. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_53","first-page":"7718","article-title":"Estimation and spatial-temporal characteristics of carbon sink in the arid region of northwest China","volume":"35","author":"Pan","year":"2015","journal-title":"Acta Ecol. Sin."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1038\/s42003-019-0383-9","article-title":"Changes in rainfall distribution promote woody foliage production in the Sahel","volume":"2","author":"Brandt","year":"2019","journal-title":"Commun. Biol."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3031","DOI":"10.1002\/grl.50563","article-title":"Impact of CO2 fertilization on maximum foliage cover across the globe\u2019s warm, arid environments","volume":"40","author":"Donohue","year":"2013","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"861","DOI":"10.1007\/s11427-021-2045-5","article-title":"Terrestrial carbon sinks in China and around the world and their contribution to carbon neutrality","volume":"65","author":"Yang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. China Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1016\/j.catena.2012.04.003","article-title":"Characteristics of carbon flux in two biologically crusted soils in the Gurbantunggut Desert, Northwestern China","volume":"96","author":"Su","year":"2012","journal-title":"CATENA"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1007\/s11104-007-9407-1","article-title":"Changes in soil and vegetation following stabilisation of dunes in the southeastern fringe of the Tengger Desert, China","volume":"300","author":"Li","year":"2007","journal-title":"Plant Soil"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"380","DOI":"10.3724\/SP.J.1258.2011.00380","article-title":"Effects of biological soil crusts on seedling growth and element uptake in five desert plants in Junggar Basin, western China","volume":"35","author":"Zhang","year":"2011","journal-title":"Chin. J. Plant Ecol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125355","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2020.125355","article-title":"Spatial patterns of vegetation carbon sinks and sources under water constraint in Central Asia","volume":"590","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_61","first-page":"61","article-title":"The Impact of Spatial Pattern Evolution of Cultivated Land on Cultivated Land Suitability in China and Its Policy Implication","volume":"35","author":"Huang","year":"2021","journal-title":"China Land Sci."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1016\/j.landusepol.2013.03.013","article-title":"Key issues of land use in China and implications for policy making","volume":"40","author":"Liu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Land Use Policy"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105746","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolind.2019.105746","article-title":"Exploring land reclamation history: Soil organic carbon sequestration due to dramatic oasis agriculture expansion in arid region of Northwest China","volume":"108","author":"Xu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ecol. Indic."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2018.10.206","article-title":"Evaluation and simulation of the impact of land use change on ecosystem services based on a carbon flow model: A case study of the Manas River Basin of Xinjiang, China","volume":"652","author":"Xu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_65","first-page":"5792","article-title":"Analysis of the spatio-temporal variation of vegetation carbon source\/sink in Qinghai Plateau from 2000\u20132015","volume":"41","author":"Liu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Acta Ecol. Sin."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2019","DOI":"10.1111\/gcb.12512","article-title":"Forest biomass carbon sinks in East Asia, with special reference to the relative contributions of forest expansion and forest growth","volume":"20","author":"Fang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Glob. Chang. Biol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"661","DOI":"10.1007\/s11427-013-4492-2","article-title":"Spatio-temporal changes in biomass carbon sinks in China\u2019s forests from 1977 to 2008","volume":"56","author":"Guo","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sci. China-Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_68","first-page":"1369","article-title":"Recent Changes of Grassland Cover in Xinjiang Based on NDVI Analysis","volume":"28","author":"Cai","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Basic Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114911","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jenvman.2022.114911","article-title":"Effects of land use and land cover change on soil organic carbon storage in the Hexi regions, Northwest China","volume":"312","author":"Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"379","DOI":"10.1007\/s10584-006-9121-7","article-title":"Recent and future climate change in northwest china","volume":"80","author":"Shi","year":"2007","journal-title":"Clim. Chang."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"305","DOI":"10.17521\/cjpe.2018.0241","article-title":"Spatiotemporal distribution changes in alpine desert belt in Qilian Mountains under climate changes in past 30 years","volume":"43","author":"Zhang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Chin. J. Plant Ecol."},{"key":"ref_72","first-page":"514","article-title":"Changes of Production-Living-Ecology Land Transformation and Eco-environmental Effects in Xinjiang in Last 40 Years","volume":"53","author":"Zhai","year":"2022","journal-title":"Chin. J. Soil Sci."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"142591","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2020.142591","article-title":"The varying driving forces of urban land expansion in China: Insights from a spatial-temporal analysis","volume":"766","author":"Wu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112679","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2022.112679","article-title":"Pathways of clean energy heating electrification programs for reducing carbon emissions in Northwest China","volume":"166","author":"Ding","year":"2022","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1038\/s41893-021-00843-y","article-title":"A large but transient carbon sink from urbanization and rural depopulation in China","volume":"5","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Sustain."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105458","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolind.2019.105458","article-title":"Effects of rapid urbanization on vegetation cover in the metropolises of China over the last four decades","volume":"107","author":"Du","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ecol. Indic."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"848","DOI":"10.1007\/s11427-013-4526-9","article-title":"Estimation of Endocarpon pusillum Hedwig carbon budget in the Tengger Desert based on its photosynthetic rate","volume":"56","author":"Ding","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sci. China-Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"600","DOI":"10.1038\/nature13376","article-title":"Contribution of semi-arid ecosystems to interannual variability of the global carbon cycle","volume":"509","author":"Poulter","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115863","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jenvman.2022.115863","article-title":"Carbon sinks\/sources? Spatiotemporal evolution in China and its response to built-up land expansion","volume":"321","author":"Ye","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2022EF002955","DOI":"10.1029\/2022EF002955","article-title":"Critical Role of Irrigation Efficiency for Cropland Expansion in Western China Arid Agroecosystems","volume":"10","author":"Fu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Earths Future"},{"key":"ref_81","first-page":"766","article-title":"Practical Exploration of Ecological Restoration and Management of the Mountains-Rivers-Forests-Farmlands-Lakes-Grasslands System in the Irtysh River Basin in Altay, Xinjiang","volume":"12","author":"Liu","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Resour. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159191","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2022.159191","article-title":"Interannual and seasonal relationships between photosynthesis and summer soil moisture in the Ili River basin, Xinjiang, 2000\u20132018","volume":"856","author":"Yu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_83","first-page":"508","article-title":"Spatiotemporal dynamics of grassland degradation in Yili Valley of Xinjiang over the last 15 years","volume":"35","author":"Yan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Pratacultural Sci."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2609","DOI":"10.1111\/gcb.12233","article-title":"Keeping management effects separate from environmental effects in terrestrial carbon accounting","volume":"19","author":"Houghton","year":"2013","journal-title":"Glob. Chang. Biol."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.5194\/essd-10-219-2018","article-title":"Gross and net land cover changes in the main plant functional types derived from the annual ESA CCI land cover maps (1992\u20132015)","volume":"10","author":"Li","year":"2018","journal-title":"Earth Syst. Sci. Data"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108611","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolind.2022.108611","article-title":"Comparison of time-integrated NDVI and annual maximum NDVI for assessing grassland dynamics","volume":"136","author":"Yan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ecol. Indic."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2021MS002862","DOI":"10.1029\/2021MS002862","article-title":"Impacts of Sub-Grid Topographic Representations on Surface Energy Balance and Boundary Conditions in the E3SM Land Model: A Case Study in Sierra Nevada","volume":"14","author":"Hao","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Adv. Model. Earth Syst."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7270","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2020.3040328","article-title":"Snow Property Inversion From Remote Sensing (SPIReS): A Generalized Multispectral Unmixing Approach With Examples From MODIS and Landsat 8 OLI","volume":"59","author":"Bair","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2019JD031456","DOI":"10.1029\/2019JD031456","article-title":"Exploring Topography-Based Methods for Downscaling Subgrid Precipitation for Use in Earth System Models","volume":"125","author":"Tesfa","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128833","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2022.128833","article-title":"A fine spatial resolution estimation scheme for large-scale gross primary productivity (GPP) in mountain ecosystems by integrating an eco-hydrological model with the combination of linear and non-linear downscaling processes","volume":"616","author":"Xie","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/15\/9\/2471\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T19:31:18Z","timestamp":1760124678000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/15\/9\/2471"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,8]]},"references-count":90,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,5]]}},"alternative-id":["rs15092471"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs15092471","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,8]]}}}