{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,16]],"date-time":"2026-07-16T17:18:29Z","timestamp":1784222309895,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":57,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,12]],"date-time":"2023-05-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1683849600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["41974002"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41974002"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["42274005"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42274005"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["42192532"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42192532"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>To enrich the understanding of the dynamic evolution of the water resources in North China, terrestrial water storage anomalies (TWSA) from January 2003 to June 2017 are derived using the new GRACE time-variable gravity field model Tongji-GraceCom. Additionally, the spatiotemporal characteristics of terrestrial water fluxes (TWF) at multiple time scales are analyzed based on the water budget theory in conjunction with hydrometeorological and statistical data. The results show that the quality of the Tongji-GraceCom model is superior to the state-of-art spherical harmonic models (CSR RL06 and JPL RL06), with the signal-to-noise ratio improving by 10\u201316%. After correcting the leakage errors with a reliable correction method, the inferred TWSA in North China presents a significant downward trend, amounting to \u22121.61 \u00b1 0.05 cm\/yr, with the most serious TWSA depletion mainly clustering in the south-central area. The TWFs derived from GRACE and from hydrometeorological elements are in good agreement and both exhibit significant seasonal fluctuations induced by tracking the periodic movements of meteorological factors. However, unlike precipitation which manifests in an increasing trend, both TWFs reflect the obvious decreasing trends, indicating that North China is suffering from severe water deficits, which are mainly attributed to the enhanced evaporation and extensive groundwater pumping for agricultural irrigation.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs15102536","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,12]],"date-time":"2023-05-12T09:26:13Z","timestamp":1683883573000},"page":"2536","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Evaluation of Terrestrial Water Storage and Flux in North China by Using GRACE Combined Gravity Field Solutions and Hydrometeorological Models"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Tengfei","family":"Feng","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Surveying and Geo-Informatics, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yunzhong","family":"Shen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Surveying and Geo-Informatics, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Qiujie","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Surveying and Geo-Informatics, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fengwei","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Marine Geology, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kunpu","family":"Ji","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Surveying and Geo-Informatics, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1011","DOI":"10.1002\/hyp.9276","article-title":"Analysis of satellite-based and in situ hydro-climatic data depicts water storage depletion in North China Region","volume":"27","author":"Moiwo","year":"2013","journal-title":"Hydrol. Process."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2110","DOI":"10.1002\/wrcr.20192","article-title":"Evaluation of groundwater depletion in North China using the gravity recovery and climate experiment (GRACE) data and ground-based measurements","volume":"49","author":"Feng","year":"2013","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2905","DOI":"10.5194\/hess-21-2905-2017","article-title":"Detecting seasonal and long-term vertical displacement in the North China Plain using GRACE and GPS","volume":"21","author":"Wang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"308","DOI":"10.1038\/466308a","article-title":"China faces up to groundwater crisis","volume":"466","author":"Qiu","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1038\/s43017-022-00378-6","article-title":"Global water resources and the role of groundwater in a resilient water future","volume":"4","author":"Scanlon","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Earth Environ."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1415","DOI":"10.1007\/s12665-015-4131-2","article-title":"Groundwater-derived land subsidence in the North China Plain","volume":"74","author":"Guo","year":"2015","journal-title":"Environ. Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, R., Zou, R., Li, J., Zhang, C., Zhao, B., and Zhang, Y. (2018). Vertical displacements driven by groundwater storage changes in the North China Plain detected by GPS observations. Remote Sens., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10020259"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"589","DOI":"10.1002\/joc.3370050602","article-title":"Climatology of the terrestrial seasonal water cycle","volume":"5","author":"Willmott","year":"1985","journal-title":"J. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L20504","DOI":"10.1029\/2004GL020873","article-title":"Basin scale estimates of evapotranspiration using GRACE and other observations","volume":"31","author":"Rodell","year":"2004","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L07403","DOI":"10.1029\/2009GL037338","article-title":"Closing the terrestrial water budget from satellite remote sensing","volume":"36","author":"Sheffield","year":"2009","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"591","DOI":"10.1007\/s10712-016-9403-1","article-title":"Large-scale total water storage and water flux changes over the arid and semiarid parts of the Middle East from GRACE and reanalysis products","volume":"38","author":"Forootan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Surv. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112519","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2021.112519","article-title":"A decadal (2008\u20132017) daily evapotranspiration data set of 1 km spatial resolution and spatial completeness across the North China Plain using TSEB and data fusion","volume":"262","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"W10403","DOI":"10.1029\/2005WR004331","article-title":"Time variations of the regional evapotranspiration rate from Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) satellite gravimetry","volume":"42","author":"Ramillien","year":"2006","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mousavi, R., Nasseri, M., Abbasi, S., Taheri, M., and Anboohi, M. (2022). Global gridded products efficiency in closing water balance models: Various modeling scenarios for behavioral assessments. Acta Geophys., 1\u201322.","DOI":"10.1007\/s11600-022-01004-1"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30205","DOI":"10.1029\/98JB02844","article-title":"Time variability of the Earth\u2019s gravity field: Hydrological and oceanic effects and their possible detection using GRACE","volume":"103","author":"Wahr","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"503","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1099192","article-title":"GRACE measurements of mass variability in the Earth system","volume":"305","author":"Tapley","year":"2004","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9412","DOI":"10.1002\/2016WR019494","article-title":"Global evaluation of new GRACE mascon products for hydrologic applications","volume":"52","author":"Scanlon","year":"2016","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1075","DOI":"10.1007\/s10712-021-09652-6","article-title":"The global water cycle budget: A chronological review","volume":"42","author":"Markonis","year":"2021","journal-title":"Surv. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-9326\/abd4a9","article-title":"Re-assessing global water storage trends from GRACE time series","volume":"16","author":"Vishwakarma","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2020JD032470","DOI":"10.1029\/2020JD032470","article-title":"Anthropogenic and climate contributions on the changes in terrestrial water storage in India","volume":"125","author":"Asoka","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126308","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2021.126308","article-title":"Continuity of terrestrial water storage variability and trends across mainland China monitored by the GRACE and GRACE-Follow on satellites","volume":"599","author":"Xiong","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"1630","article-title":"Groundwater storage variations in the North China Plain from GRACE with spatial constraints","volume":"60","author":"Feng","year":"2017","journal-title":"Chin. J. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1791","DOI":"10.1002\/2014GL062498","article-title":"Subregional-scale groundwater depletion detected by GRACE for both shallow and deep aquifers in North China Plain","volume":"42","author":"Huang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Geophs. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"190","DOI":"10.1002\/2016GL071287","article-title":"Detection of human-induced evapotranspiration using GRACE satellite observations in the Haihe River basin of China","volume":"44","author":"Pan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Geophs. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3665","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-020-17428-6","article-title":"South-to-North water diversion stabilizing Beijing\u2019s groundwater levels","volume":"11","author":"Long","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126156","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2021.126156","article-title":"Sub-regional groundwater storage recovery in North China Plain after the South-to-North water diversion project","volume":"597","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1016\/j.iswcr.2020.06.004","article-title":"Spatiotemporal changes in terrestrial water storage in the Beijing-Tianjin sandstorm source region from GRACE satellites","volume":"8","author":"Pang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. Soil Water Conserv. Res."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127708","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2022.127708","article-title":"Groundwater storage change and driving factor analysis in North China using independent component decomposition","volume":"609","author":"Feng","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101091","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejrh.2022.101091","article-title":"Seasonal driving sources and hydrological-induced secular trend of the vertical displacement in North China","volume":"41","author":"Feng","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Hydrol. Reg. Stud."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Chen, Q., Shen, Z., Shen, Y., Chen, W., and Zhang, X. (2023, January 11\u201320). Tongji-Grace2022: New Global Temporal Earth\u2019s Gravity Field Models Derived from K-Band and LRI Inter-Satellite Rang-Rate Data. Proceedings of the 28th IUGG General Assembly, Berlin, Germany."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8352","DOI":"10.1002\/2016JB013073","article-title":"Optimizing estimates of annual variations and trends in geocenter motion and J2 from a combination of GRACE data and geophysical models","volume":"121","author":"Sun","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2019GL085488","DOI":"10.1029\/2019GL085488","article-title":"Replacing GRACE\/GRACE-FO C30 with satellite laser ranging: Impacts on Antarctic Ice Sheet mass change","volume":"47","author":"Loomis","year":"2020","journal-title":"Geophs. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2019","DOI":"10.1002\/2016JB013844","article-title":"Comment on \u201cAn assessment of the ICE-6G_C (VM5a) Glacial Isostatic Adjustment model\u201d by Purcell et al","volume":"123","author":"Peltier","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"859","DOI":"10.1038\/ngeo694","article-title":"Accelerated Antarctic ice loss from satellite gravity measurements","volume":"2","author":"Chen","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nat. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"503","DOI":"10.1007\/s00190-016-0889-6","article-title":"An improved GRACE monthly gravity field solution by modelling the non-conservative acceleration and attitude observation errors","volume":"90","author":"Chen","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Geod."},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"1775","article-title":"GRACE leakage error correction with regularization technique: Case studies in Greenland and Antarctica","volume":"208","author":"Mu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Geophys. J. Int."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7547","DOI":"10.1002\/2016JB013007","article-title":"High resolution CSR GRACE RL05 mascons","volume":"121","author":"Save","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2648","DOI":"10.1002\/2014JB011547","article-title":"Improved methods for observing Earth\u2019s time variable mass distribution with GRACE using spherical cap mascons","volume":"120","author":"Watkins","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhong, Y., Feng, W., Humphrey, V., and Zhong, M. (2019). Human-induced and climate-driven contributions to water storage variations in the Haihe River Basin, China. Remote Sens., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11243050"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129331","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2023.129331","article-title":"Spatiotemporal variability and driving factors of the shallow soil moisture in North China during the past 31 years","volume":"619","author":"Feng","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1903","DOI":"10.5194\/gmd-10-1903-2017","article-title":"GLEAM v3: Satellite-based land evaporation and root-zone soil moisture","volume":"10","author":"Martens","year":"2017","journal-title":"Geosci. Model Dev."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"381","DOI":"10.1175\/BAMS-85-3-381","article-title":"The Global Land Data Assimilation System","volume":"85","author":"Rodell","year":"2004","journal-title":"Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"373","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2009.06.040","article-title":"Abrupt change of runoff and its major driving factors in Haihe River Catchment, China","volume":"374","author":"Yang","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1037","DOI":"10.5194\/gmd-14-1037-2021","article-title":"The global water resources and use model WaterGAP v2.2d: Model description and evaluation. Geosci","volume":"14","author":"Schmied","year":"2020","journal-title":"Model Dev."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"535","DOI":"10.5194\/hess-9-535-2005","article-title":"Development and validation of the global map of irrigation areas","volume":"9","author":"Siebert","year":"2005","journal-title":"Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"B11410","DOI":"10.1029\/2012JB009480","article-title":"Using nonlinear programming to correct leakage and estimate mass change from GRACE observation and its application to Antarctica","volume":"117","author":"Tang","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2504","DOI":"10.1002\/2013JB010860","article-title":"Evaluation of glacier changes in high-mountain Asia based on 10 year GRACE RL05 models","volume":"119","author":"Yi","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth"},{"key":"ref_48","first-page":"49","article-title":"Regularization of ill-posed problems","volume":"151","author":"Tikhonov","year":"1963","journal-title":"Dokl. Akad. Nauk SSSR"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1080\/00401706.1970.10488634","article-title":"Ridge regression: Biased estimation for nonorthogonal problems","volume":"12","author":"Hoerl","year":"1970","journal-title":"Technometrics"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"597","DOI":"10.1007\/s00190-012-0542-y","article-title":"Bias-corrected regularized solution to inverse ill-posed models","volume":"86","author":"Shen","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Geod."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1651","DOI":"10.3390\/rs5041651","article-title":"Water balance modeling in a semi-arid environment with limited in situ data using remote sensing in Lake Manyara, East African Rift, Tanzania","volume":"5","author":"Deus","year":"2013","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, Q., Liu, X., Zhong, Y., Wang, M., and Zhu, S. (2021). Estimation of Terrestrial water storage changes at small basin scales based on multi-source data. Remote Sens., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13163304"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L10401","DOI":"10.1029\/2010GL043231","article-title":"Inferring aquifer storage parameters using satellite and in situ measurements: Estimation under uncertainty","volume":"37","author":"Sun","year":"2010","journal-title":"Geophs. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2022JD036738","DOI":"10.1029\/2022JD036738","article-title":"Large-scale afforestation enhances precipitation by intensifying the atmospheric water cycle over the Chinese Loess Plateau","volume":"127","author":"Tian","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4449","DOI":"10.1175\/2008JCLI2183.1","article-title":"How to measure the strength of the east Asian summer monsoon","volume":"21","author":"Wang","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"424","DOI":"10.1038\/nclimate2563","article-title":"Elevation-dependent warming in mountain regions of the world","volume":"5","author":"Pepin","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Clim. Chang."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2022WR033261","DOI":"10.1029\/2022WR033261","article-title":"Separating the precipitation- and non-precipitation driven water storage trends in China","volume":"59","author":"Zhong","year":"2023","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/15\/10\/2536\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T19:33:34Z","timestamp":1760124814000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/15\/10\/2536"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,12]]},"references-count":57,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,5]]}},"alternative-id":["rs15102536"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs15102536","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,12]]}}}