{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,1]],"date-time":"2026-04-01T17:25:54Z","timestamp":1775064354493,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":98,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,26]],"date-time":"2023-05-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1685059200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Nanjing Vocational University of Industry Technology\u2019s University-level Introduced Talent Research Start-up Fund Project","award":["YK21-05-07"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["YK21-05-07"]}]},{"name":"Nanjing Vocational University of Industry Technology\u2019s University-level Introduced Talent Research Start-up Fund Project","award":["2022z021"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022z021"]}]},{"name":"Nanjing Vocational University of Industry Technology\u2019s University-level Introduced Talent Research Start-up Fund Project","award":["GF21D050002"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["GF21D050002"]}]},{"name":"Research Funds of Jiangsu Hydraulic Research Institute","award":["YK21-05-07"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["YK21-05-07"]}]},{"name":"Research Funds of Jiangsu Hydraulic Research Institute","award":["2022z021"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022z021"]}]},{"name":"Research Funds of Jiangsu Hydraulic Research Institute","award":["GF21D050002"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["GF21D050002"]}]},{"name":"research project \u201cResearch and Application of Reservoir Meteorological Risk Early Warning Technology Based on Deep Neural Networks\u201d","award":["YK21-05-07"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["YK21-05-07"]}]},{"name":"research project \u201cResearch and Application of Reservoir Meteorological Risk Early Warning Technology Based on Deep Neural Networks\u201d","award":["2022z021"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022z021"]}]},{"name":"research project \u201cResearch and Application of Reservoir Meteorological Risk Early Warning Technology Based on Deep Neural Networks\u201d","award":["GF21D050002"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["GF21D050002"]}]},{"name":"Zhejiang Province Basic Public Welfare Research Program","award":["YK21-05-07"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["YK21-05-07"]}]},{"name":"Zhejiang Province Basic Public Welfare Research Program","award":["2022z021"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022z021"]}]},{"name":"Zhejiang Province Basic Public Welfare Research Program","award":["GF21D050002"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["GF21D050002"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This paper utilizes high-resolution ERA5 hourly data from 1980 to 2020 and long-term normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) time series obtained from remote sensing and applies trend analysis, correlation analysis, lag analysis, and other methods to study the spatiotemporal characteristics of extreme rainfall at daily and hourly scales in the Huang-Huai-Hai Plain. The paper explores the NDVI\u2019s variability and its relationship with extreme hourly precipitation and analyzes the main factors affecting it. The study made the following observations: (1) The extreme daily precipitation in the Huang-Huai-Hai Plain shows a decreasing trend, with a 13.6 mm\/yr reduction rate. In contrast, the proportion of extreme rainfall to total precipitation generally exceeds 20%, and the intensity of extreme rain has gradually increased. The spatial distribution pattern of extreme rainfall follows the distribution pattern of China\u2019s rain belts, with the terrain being an important influencing factor. The high-incidence areas for extreme rainfall are the Huaihe River region and the Shandong Peninsula. (2) The observed significant increase in hourly extreme precipitation events in the Shandong and Henan provinces of the Huang-Huai-Hai Plain has led to an increased risk of flooding, while the corresponding events in the northwest region of the Plain have exhibited a gradual weakening trend over time. (3) The extreme hourly precipitation in the Huang-Huai-Hai plain shows a frequent and scattered pattern, with decreasing intensity over time. Extreme precipitation mainly occurs in the first half of the night, especially between 19:00 and 21:00, with extreme hourly rainfall intensity fluctuating between 0.2 and 0.25 and the proportion of rainfall to total precipitation reaching as high as 10%. The spatial distribution of extreme hourly rainstorms during the peak period (19:00\u201321:00) exhibits a high rainfall volume, intensity, and frequency pattern in the eastern region, while the western part exhibits low rainfall volume, intensity, and frequency. (4) The incidence of extremely heavy rainfall in an hour has exhibited a more significant increase compared to extreme daily events in the Huang-Huai-Hai Plain, primarily in the form of backward-type precipitation. Hourly extreme precipitation events in the Huang-Huai-Hai Plain are affected by terrain and land use\/cover change (LUCC), with the micro-topography of hilly areas leading to a concentrated distribution of precipitation and LUCC suppressing extreme precipitation events in arid climates. (5) At the ten-day scale, the spatial distribution of the NDVI shows a gradually increasing trend from northwest to southeast, with the highest NDVI value reaching up to 0.6 in the southern part of the study area. For extreme hourly precipitation, there is no significant change observed at the multi-year ten-day scale; while the NDVI in the northern and central parts of the Huang-Huai-Hai Plain shows a significant decreasing trend, in contrast, it presents a significant increasing trend in the southern region. (6) Finally, the correlation between NDVI at the ten-day scale and extreme hourly precipitation exhibits a decreasing pattern from north to south, with a correlation coefficient decreasing from 0.48 to 0.08. The lagged correlation analysis of extreme hourly rainfall and NDVI for one, two, and three ten-day periods shows that the lagged effect of extreme hourly precipitation on NDVI is negligible. Analyzing the correlation between extreme hourly rainfall and NDVI for different months, the impact of extreme hourly precipitation on NDVI is predominantly negative, except for June, which shows a positive correlation (0.35), passing the significance test. This study offers a scientific foundation for enhancing disaster warning accuracy and timeliness and strengthening the research on disaster reduction techniques.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs15112778","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,27]],"date-time":"2023-05-27T16:17:33Z","timestamp":1685204253000},"page":"2778","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["Spatiotemporal Variation of Hourly Scale Extreme Rainstorms in the Huang-Huai-Hai Plain and Its Impact on NDVI"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Huiting","family":"Zuo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Applied Meteorology, Nanjing University of Information Science &Technology, Nanjing 210044, China"}]},{"given":"Yunsheng","family":"Lou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Collaborative Innovation Center on Forecast and Evaluation of Meteorological Disasters, School of Applied Meteorology, Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, Nanjing 210044, China"},{"name":"Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Agricultural Meteorology, Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, Nanjing 210044, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2370-2518","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zhongliang","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Computer and Software, Nanjing Vocational University of Industry Technology, Nanjing 210046, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"IPCC (2021). Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis, Cambridge University Press."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1506","DOI":"10.1002\/joc.6868","article-title":"Changes in extreme temperature events over Africa under 1.5 and 2.0 \u00b0C global warming scenarios","volume":"41","author":"Iyakaremye","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1465","DOI":"10.1002\/joc.6865","article-title":"Changes in daily extreme temperature and precipitation events in mainland China from 1960 to 2016 under global warming","volume":"41","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6885","DOI":"10.1029\/2019GL082908","article-title":"Larger Increases in More Extreme Local Precipitation Events as Climate Warms","volume":"46","author":"Li","year":"2019","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"411","DOI":"10.1029\/2018EF000989","article-title":"Temporally Compound Heat Wave Events and Global Warming: An Emerging Hazard","volume":"7","author":"Baldwin","year":"2019","journal-title":"Earth\u2019s Future"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5235429","DOI":"10.1155\/2019\/5235429","article-title":"Increase of Extreme Drought over Ethiopia under Climate Warming","volume":"2019","author":"Teshome","year":"2019","journal-title":"Adv. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100294","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wace.2020.100294","article-title":"Changes in hourly extreme precipitation in Victoria, Australia, from the observational record","volume":"31","author":"Osburn","year":"2021","journal-title":"Weather Clim. Extremes"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16063","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-52277-4","article-title":"Frequency of extreme precipitation increases extensively with event rareness under global warming","volume":"9","author":"Myhre","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4543","DOI":"10.1007\/s00382-017-3848-x","article-title":"Predictability of summer extreme precipitation days over eastern China","volume":"51","author":"Li","year":"2018","journal-title":"Clim. Dyn."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, W., Wu, J., Tang, R., Ye, M., and Yang, J. (2020). Daily Precipitation Threshold for Rainstorm and Flood Disaster in the Mainland of China: An Economic Loss Perspective. Sustainability, 12.","DOI":"10.5194\/egusphere-egu2020-6538"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104144","DOI":"10.1016\/j.advwatres.2022.104144","article-title":"Extreme Precipitation in China: A Review on Statistical Methods and Applications","volume":"163","author":"Gu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Adv. Water Resour."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"555","DOI":"10.1007\/s11069-015-1730-x","article-title":"Whether a large disaster could change public concern and risk perception: A case study of the 7\/21 extraordinary rainstorm disaster in Beijing in 2012","volume":"78","author":"Su","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2766","DOI":"10.1002\/2016JD025913","article-title":"Summer extreme precipitation in eastern China: Mechanisms and impacts","volume":"122","author":"Zhang","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"809","DOI":"10.5194\/hess-24-809-2020","article-title":"A universal multifractal approach to assessment of spatiotemporal extreme precipitation over the Loess Plateau of China","volume":"24","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1694","DOI":"10.1080\/19475705.2019.1609604","article-title":"Annual precipitation and daily extreme precipitation distribution: Possible trends from 1960 to 2010 in urban areas of China","volume":"10","author":"Li","year":"2019","journal-title":"Geomat. Nat. Hazards Risk"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosres.2015.09.001","article-title":"Changes in extreme temperature and precipitation events in the Loess Plateau (China) during 1960\u20132013 under global warming","volume":"168","author":"Sun","year":"2016","journal-title":"Atmos. Res."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"140264","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2020.140264","article-title":"Contribution of urbanization to the changes in extreme climate events in urban agglomerations across China","volume":"744","author":"Lin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2021EF002409","DOI":"10.1029\/2021EF002409","article-title":"Detectable Human Influence on Changes in Precipitation Extremes Across China","volume":"10","author":"Xu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Earth\u2019s Future"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2423","DOI":"10.1002\/joc.5345","article-title":"Variations in the start, end, and length of extreme precipitation period across China","volume":"38","author":"Guo","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109287","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolind.2022.109287","article-title":"Spatiotemporal variability of extreme precipitation at different time scales and quantitative analysis of associated driving teleconnection factors: Insights from Taihu Basin, China","volume":"142","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ecol. Indic."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17618","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-22352-4","article-title":"Variation characteristics and the impact of urbanization of extreme precipitation in Shanghai","volume":"12","author":"Mou","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"471","DOI":"10.1007\/s00382-022-06138-y","article-title":"Assessment of the spatio-temporal variability of the added value on precipitation of convection-permitting simulation over the Iberian Peninsula using the RegIPSL regional earth system model","volume":"59","author":"Shahi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Clim. Dyn."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1435","DOI":"10.1002\/joc.6278","article-title":"Spatiotemporal variability of daily precipitation concentration and its relationship to teleconnection patterns over the Mediterranean during 1975\u20132015","volume":"40","author":"Mathbout","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1007\/s11442-014-1073-7","article-title":"Changes in temperature extremes in the Yangtze River Basin, 1962\u20132011","volume":"24","author":"Wang","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Geogr. Sci."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.1002\/joc.3977","article-title":"Variability of extreme precipitation over Yunnan Province, China 1960\u20132012","volume":"35","author":"Li","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1016\/j.accre.2018.08.002","article-title":"Changes in persistent and non-persistent extreme precipitation in China from 1961 to 2016","volume":"9","author":"He","year":"2018","journal-title":"Adv. Clim. Chang. Res."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1016\/j.quaint.2013.01.025","article-title":"Changes in extreme precipitation over Northeast China, 1960\u20132011","volume":"298","author":"Wang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Quat. Int."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"803","DOI":"10.1038\/s41558-018-0245-3","article-title":"Detection of continental-scale intensification of hourly rainfall extremes","volume":"8","author":"Guerreiro","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Clim. Chang."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1038\/ngeo1731","article-title":"SStrong increase in convective precipitation in response to higher temperatures","volume":"6","author":"Berg","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nat. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Soro, G.E., Nouf\u00e9, D., Bi, T.A.G., and Shorohou, B. (2016). Trend Analysis for Extreme Rainfall at Sub-Daily and Daily Timescales in C\u00f4te d\u2019Ivoire. Climate, 4.","DOI":"10.3390\/cli4030037"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125008","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-9326\/ab51b6","article-title":"On the use of indices to study extreme precipitation on sub-daily and daily timescales","volume":"14","author":"Alexander","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"074035","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-9326\/ac0caa","article-title":"Global mean frequency increases of daily and sub-daily heavy precipitation in ERA5","volume":"16","author":"Chinita","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"655","DOI":"10.1126\/science.abn8657","article-title":"Intensification of subhourly heavy rainfall","volume":"378","author":"Ayat","year":"2022","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"044003","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-9326\/11\/4\/044003","article-title":"Contribution of large-scale circulation anomalies to changes in extreme precipitation frequency in the United States","volume":"11","author":"Yu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Environ. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"974","DOI":"10.1002\/2016GL071917","article-title":"Is the intensification of precipitation extremes with global warming better detected at hourly than daily resolutions?","volume":"44","author":"Barbero","year":"2017","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6037","DOI":"10.1175\/JCLI-D-16-0808.1","article-title":"Super-Clausius\u2013Clapeyron Scaling of Extreme Hourly Convective Precipitation and Its Relation to Large-Scale Atmospheric Conditions","volume":"30","author":"Lenderink","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100781","DOI":"10.1016\/j.uclim.2021.100781","article-title":"Exploring the effect of urbanization on hourly extreme rainfall over Yangtze River Delta of China","volume":"36","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Urban Clim."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104085","DOI":"10.1016\/j.advwatres.2021.104085","article-title":"Differential orographic impact on sub-hourly, hourly, and daily extreme precipitation","volume":"159","author":"Formetta","year":"2022","journal-title":"Adv. Water Resour."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"417","DOI":"10.1007\/s12040-016-0664-3","article-title":"Projection of extreme precipitation in the context of climate change in Huang-Huai-Hai region, China","volume":"125","author":"Yin","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1007\/s00704-014-1159-2","article-title":"Changes in extreme precipitation in the Huang-Huai-Hai River basin of China during 1960\u20132010","volume":"120","author":"Zhang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Theor. Appl. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yuan, Y., Yan, D., Yuan, Z., Yin, J., and Zhao, Z. (2019). Spatial Distribution of Precipitation in Huang-Huai-Hai River Basin between 1961 to 2016, China. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph16183404"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"805","DOI":"10.1038\/421805a","article-title":"Severe summertime flooding in Europe","volume":"421","author":"Christensen","year":"2003","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1135","DOI":"10.1007\/s00382-010-0822-2","article-title":"Analysis of precipitation extremes in an ensemble of transient regional climate model simulations for the Rhine basin","volume":"36","author":"Hanel","year":"2011","journal-title":"Clim. Dyn."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"522","DOI":"10.1002\/2014RG000464","article-title":"Future changes to the intensity and frequency of short-duration extreme rainfall","volume":"52","author":"Westra","year":"2014","journal-title":"Rev. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"799","DOI":"10.1007\/s13351-013-0604-y","article-title":"Duration and seasonality of hourly extreme rainfall in the central eastern China","volume":"27","author":"Li","year":"2013","journal-title":"Acta Meteorol. Sin."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1205","DOI":"10.1175\/BAMS-84-9-1205","article-title":"The Changing Character of Precipitation","volume":"84","author":"Trenberth","year":"2003","journal-title":"Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13768","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-70816-2","article-title":"Climate change impact on flood and extreme precipitation increases with water availability","volume":"10","author":"Tabari","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"780","DOI":"10.1111\/1752-1688.12752","article-title":"Precipitation Extremes and Flood Frequency in a Changing Climate in Southeastern Virginia","volume":"55","author":"Sridhar","year":"2019","journal-title":"JAWRA J. Am. Water Resour. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3307","DOI":"10.1175\/JCLI-D-11-00288.1","article-title":"Regimes of Diurnal Variation of Summer Rainfall over Subtropical East Asia","volume":"25","author":"Yuan","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2283","DOI":"10.1175\/2007JCLI2100.1","article-title":"Improvements to NOAA\u2019s Historical Merged Land\u2013Ocean Surface Temperature Analysis (1880\u20132006)","volume":"21","author":"Smith","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1834","DOI":"10.1175\/JAM2173.1","article-title":"Precipitation Estimation from Remotely Sensed Imagery Using an Artificial Neural Network Cloud Classification System","volume":"43","author":"Hong","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"679","DOI":"10.1007\/s10712-017-9416-4","article-title":"Global Precipitation: Means, Variations and Trends During the Satellite Era (1979\u20132014)","volume":"38","author":"Adler","year":"2017","journal-title":"Surv. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125932","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2020.125932","article-title":"Extreme value analysis dilemma for climate change impact assessment on global flood and extreme precipitation","volume":"593","author":"Tabari","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"553","DOI":"10.1002\/qj.828","article-title":"The ERA-Interim reanalysis: Configuration and performance of the data assimilation system","volume":"137","author":"Dee","year":"2011","journal-title":"Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8545","DOI":"10.1029\/2018WR023749","article-title":"If Precipitation Extremes Are Increasing, Why Aren\u2019t Floods?","volume":"54","author":"Sharma","year":"2018","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1393","DOI":"10.1007\/s00704-020-03506-8","article-title":"Spatiotemporal characteristics and risk assessment of agricultural drought disasters during the winter wheat-growing season on the Huang-Huai-Hai Plain, China","volume":"143","author":"Hu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Theor. Appl. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"240","DOI":"10.3390\/land12010240","article-title":"Drought Monitoring in Terms of Evapotranspiration Based on Satellite Data from Meteosat in Areas of Strong Land&ndash; Atmosphere Coupling","volume":"12","author":"Stoyanova","year":"2023","journal-title":"Land"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ren, F., Wu, G., Dong, W., Wang, X., Wang, Y., Ai, W., and Li, W. (2006). Changes in tropical cyclone precipitation over China. Geophys. Res. Lett., 33.","DOI":"10.1029\/2006GL027951"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jiang, P., Yu, Z., Yuan, F., and Acharya, K. (2019). The Multi-Scale Temporal Variability of Extreme Precipitation in the Source Region of the Yellow River. Water, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/w11010092"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agee.2015.03.033","article-title":"Assessing vulnerability and adaptive capacity to potential drought for winter-wheat under the RCP 8.5 scenario in the Huang-Huai-Hai Plain","volume":"209","author":"Li","year":"2015","journal-title":"Agric. Ecosyst. Environ."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agsy.2017.01.018","article-title":"Impact of alternative cropping systems on groundwater use and grain yields in the North China Plain Region","volume":"153","author":"Xiao","year":"2017","journal-title":"Agric. Syst."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"663","DOI":"10.1007\/s13351-021-0196-x","article-title":"Performance of the CRA-40\/Land, CMFD, and ERA-Interim Datasets in Reflecting Changes in Surface Air Temperature over the Tibetan Plateau","volume":"35","author":"Yang","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Meteorol. Res."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"527","DOI":"10.1007\/s12665-022-10655-8","article-title":"Corrected GCM data through CMFD data to analysis future runoff changes in the source region of the Yangtze River, China","volume":"81","author":"Jin","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105912","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosres.2021.105912","article-title":"Detecting heavy rainfall using anomaly-based percentile thresholds of predictors derived from GNSS-PWV","volume":"265","author":"Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"Atmos. Res."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1417","DOI":"10.1080\/01431168608948945","article-title":"Characteristics of maximum-value composite images from temporal AVHRR data","volume":"7","author":"Holben","year":"1986","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhu, Y., Liu, X., Zhang, Y., Chen, C., Shen, L., Ju, Q., Zhou, T., and Xia, P. (2022). The Proportional Characteristics of Daytime and Nighttime Precipitation Based on Daily Precipitation in Huai River Basin, China. Atmosphere, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/atmos13081287"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104010","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-9326\/ab28bc","article-title":"More extreme marine heatwaves in the China Seas during the global warming hiatus","volume":"14","author":"Li","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3148","DOI":"10.1002\/joc.4543","article-title":"Spatiotemporal characteristics of hourly precipitation over central eastern China during the warm season of 1982\u20132012","volume":"36","author":"Li","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tao, Y., Wang, W., Song, S., and Ma, J. (2018). Spatial and Temporal Variations of Precipitation Extremes and Seasonality over China from 1961~2013. Water, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/w10060719"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"156297","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2022.156297","article-title":"Climatology and changes in hourly precipitation extremes over China during 1970\u20132018","volume":"839","author":"Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Total. Environ."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4020","DOI":"10.1002\/2014GL060130","article-title":"Increasing autumn drought over southern China associated with ENSO regime shift","volume":"41","author":"Zhang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"759","DOI":"10.1007\/s00382-011-1128-8","article-title":"On the time-varying trend in global-mean surface temperature","volume":"37","author":"Wu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Clim. Dyn."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1175\/JCLI-D-15-0118.1","article-title":"Impact of East Asian Summer Monsoon Heating on the Interannual Variation of the South Asian High","volume":"29","author":"Zhang","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1477","DOI":"10.1175\/JCLI-D-14-00449.1","article-title":"Asian Summer Monsoon in CMIP5 Projections: A Link between the Change in Extreme Precipitation and Monsoon Dynamics","volume":"28","author":"Freychet","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4073","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0442(2001)014<4073:IVOTAS>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Interannual Variability of the Asian Summer Monsoon: Contrasts between the Indian and the Western North Pacific\u2013East Asian Monsoons","volume":"14","author":"Wang","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"946252","DOI":"10.3389\/feart.2021.799104","article-title":"Subseasonal Variation of 2020 Meiyu Rainfall With Extremely Long Duration Over the Yangtze\u2013Huaihe River Basin in China","volume":"9","author":"Chen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"946252","DOI":"10.3389\/feart.2022.946252","article-title":"Recent Decadal Weakening of the Summertime Rainfall Interannual Variability Over Yellow-Huaihe River Valley Attributable to the Western Pacific Cooling","volume":"10","author":"Lu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7823","DOI":"10.1175\/JCLI-D-19-0266.1","article-title":"Impacts of Central Pacific El Ni\u00f1o on Southern China Spring Precipitation Controlled by its Longitudinal Position","volume":"32","author":"Jiang","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10037","DOI":"10.1175\/JCLI-D-17-0312.1","article-title":"Orographically Anchored El Ni\u00f1o Effect on Summer Rainfall in Central China","volume":"30","author":"Hu","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"693","DOI":"10.1007\/s13351-014-4046-y","article-title":"Interdecadal Variability of the East Asian Winter Monsoon and Its Possible Links to Global Climate Change","volume":"28","author":"YDing","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Meteorol. Res."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"835","DOI":"10.1016\/j.accre.2022.11.008","article-title":"Extreme precipitation over northern China in autumn 2021 and joint contributions of tropical and mid-latitude factors","volume":"13","author":"Gu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Adv. Clim. Chang. Res."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2120335119","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2120335119","article-title":"Increased variability of the western Pacific subtropical high under greenhouse warming","volume":"119","author":"Yang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Song, X., Zou, X., Zhang, C., Zhang, J., and Kong, F. (2019). Multiscale Spatio-Temporal Changes of Precipitation Extremes in Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei Region, China during 1958\u20132017. Atmosphere, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/atmos10080462"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1218","DOI":"10.1007\/s00376-016-6128-5","article-title":"Spatial characteristics of extreme rainfall over China with hourly through 24-hour accumulation periods based on national-level hourly rain gauge data","volume":"33","author":"Zheng","year":"2016","journal-title":"Adv. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lu, Y., Jiang, S., Ren, L., Zhang, L., Wang, M., Liu, R., and Wei, L. (2019). Spatial and Temporal Variability in Precipitation Concentration over Mainland China, 1961\u20132017. Water, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/w11050881"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2232","DOI":"10.2166\/wcc.2021.313","article-title":"Temporal and spatial distributions of precipitation on the Huang-Huai-Hai Plain during 1960\u20132019, China","volume":"12","author":"Ling","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Water Clim. Chang."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3839","DOI":"10.2166\/wcc.2021.353","article-title":"Precipitation barycenter and relationship to the spatial distribution of station networks on the Huang-Huai-Hai Plain, China","volume":"12","author":"Ling","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Water Clim. Chang."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2717","DOI":"10.1175\/JAMC-D-19-0150.1","article-title":"Regional Differences in Hourly Precipitation Characteristics along the Western Coast of South China","volume":"58","author":"Li","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteorol. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2020EA001536","DOI":"10.1029\/2020EA001536","article-title":"Urbanization Impacts on Pearl River Delta Extreme Rainfall Sensitivity to Land Cover Change Versus Anthropogenic Heat","volume":"8","author":"Hu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Earth Space Sci."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ren, M., Xu, Z., Pang, B., Liu, J., and Du, L. (2020). Spatiotemporal Variability of Precipitation in Beijing, China during the Wet Seasons. Water, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/w12030716"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2021JD036053","DOI":"10.1029\/2021JD036053","article-title":"Interplay Between Urbanization and Irrigation on Summer Climate in the Huang-Huai-Hai Plain, China","volume":"127","author":"Cui","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, Y.-J., Jee, J.-B., and Lim, B. (2023). Investigating the Influence of Water Vapor on Heavy Rainfall Events in the Southern Korean Peninsula. Remote Sens., 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs15020340"},{"key":"ref_93","first-page":"875","article-title":"A high-resolution grid dataset of air temperature and precipitation for Qinling-Daba Mountains in central China and its implications for regional climate","volume":"74","author":"Lu","year":"2019","journal-title":"ACTA Geogr. Sin."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105429","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosres.2020.105429","article-title":"Spatiotemporal variations of extreme precipitation and its potential driving factors in China\u2019s North-South Transition Zone during 1960\u20132017","volume":"252","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Atmos. Res."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"818402","DOI":"10.3389\/fenvs.2021.818402","article-title":"Impacts of Changbai Mountain Topography on the Extreme Precipitation From Super Typhoon Maysak","volume":"9","author":"Zhu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Environ. Sci."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2713","DOI":"10.1007\/s00382-020-05139-z","article-title":"Enhancement of the summer extreme precipitation over North China by interactions between moisture convergence and topographic settings","volume":"54","author":"Zhao","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clim. Dyn."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E303","DOI":"10.1175\/BAMS-D-18-0194.1","article-title":"Tropical Cyclones and Climate Change Assessment: Part II: Projected Response to Anthropogenic Warming","volume":"101","author":"Knutson","year":"2020","journal-title":"Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosres.2018.02.006","article-title":"Contributions of natural climate changes and human activities to the trend of extreme precipitation","volume":"205","author":"Gao","year":"2018","journal-title":"Atmos. Res."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/15\/11\/2778\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T19:42:56Z","timestamp":1760125376000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/15\/11\/2778"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,26]]},"references-count":98,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,6]]}},"alternative-id":["rs15112778"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs15112778","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,26]]}}}