{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,1]],"date-time":"2025-11-01T13:56:57Z","timestamp":1762005417144,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":58,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,8]],"date-time":"2023-06-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1686182400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Pavement condition largely determines its long-term behavior and is of paramount importance for rehabilitation and maintenance management. The use of non-destructive testing (NDT) systems to assess pavement condition has gained much popularity. Often, well-known NDT systems are combined to take full advantage of the capabilities of each system. Combining independent NDT systems to optimize the assessment process is a scientific challenge. With this in mind, the purpose of this paper is to investigate the extent to which data from two independent NDT systems can be combined: pavement thickness obtained with ground penetrating radar (GPR) and roughness data obtained with a road surface profiler (RSP). In particular, the objective of this study is to determine whether the expected variations in asphalt layer thickness, due to the construction process and the different pavement cross sections along the same road\/highway road, may have an impact on pavement roughness as expressed in International Roughness Index (IRI) values. GPR and roughness data are collected, processed, and analyzed. The analysis results show that thickness variations are reflected in pavement roughness. The greater the variation in asphalt layer thickness, the greater the IRI values. Furthermore, it is argued that the GPR capabilities can be used for an initial assessment of the expected pavement quality.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs15123011","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,9]],"date-time":"2023-06-09T02:03:18Z","timestamp":1686276198000},"page":"3011","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Using NDT Data to Assess the Effect of Pavement Thickness Variability on Ride Quality"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2452-0233","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Christina","family":"Plati","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Transportation Planning and Engineering, School of Civil Engineering, National Technical University of Athens, 15773 Athens, Greece"}]},{"given":"Konstantina","family":"Georgouli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil Engineering, School of Engineering, University of the Peloponnese, 26334 Patra, Greece"}]},{"given":"Andreas","family":"Loizos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Transportation Planning and Engineering, School of Civil Engineering, National Technical University of Athens, 15773 Athens, Greece"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"395","DOI":"10.1007\/s10712-019-09518-y","article-title":"Assessment of Modern Roadways Using Non-destructive Geophysical Surveying Techniques","volume":"41","author":"Plati","year":"2020","journal-title":"Surv. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.3997\/1873-0604.2015006","article-title":"Mapping the spatial variation of soil moisture at the large scale using GPR for pavement applications","volume":"13","author":"Benedetto","year":"2015","journal-title":"Near Surf. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sigpro.2016.05.016","article-title":"An overview of ground-penetrating radar signal processing techniques for road inspections","volume":"132","author":"Benedetto","year":"2017","journal-title":"Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trc.2023.104120","article-title":"An automated driving systems data acquisition and analytics platform","volume":"151","author":"Xia","year":"2023","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part C"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8085","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTARS.2022.3206399","article-title":"YOLOv5-Tassel: Detecting Tassels in RGB UAV Imagery with Improved YOLOv5 Based on Transfer Learning","volume":"15","author":"Liu","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Appl. Earth Obs. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1109\/TCST.2022.3174511","article-title":"Autonomous Vehicle Kinematics and Dynamics Synthesis for Sideslip Angle Estimation Based on Consensus Kalman Filter","volume":"31","author":"Xia","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Control. Syst. Technol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6818","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2022.3150073","article-title":"Improved Vehicle Localization Using On-Board Sensors and Vehicle Lateral Velocity","volume":"22","author":"Gao","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124","DOI":"10.1177\/0361198120927006","article-title":"Pothole Mapping and Patching Quantity Estimates using LiDAR-Based Mobile Mapping Systems","volume":"2674","author":"Ravi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Rec."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100168","DOI":"10.1016\/j.treng.2023.100168","article-title":"Unmanned aerial vehicle implementation for pavement condition survey","volume":"12","author":"Astor","year":"2023","journal-title":"Transp. Eng."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)1076-0342(1996)2:2(94)","article-title":"Condition Assessment of Transportation Infrastructure Using Ground Penetrating Radar","volume":"2","author":"Maser","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Infrastruct. Syst."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lahouar, S., Al-Qadi, I.L., Loulizi, A., Clark, T.M., and Lee, D.T. (2002). Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, Transportation Research Board of the National Academies. No. 1806.","DOI":"10.3141\/1806-05"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Al-Qadi, I.L., Lahouar, S., and Loulizi, A. (2003). Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, Transportation Research Board of the National Academies. No. 1861.","DOI":"10.3141\/1861-10"},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Maser, K.R., and Scullion, T. (1992). Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, Transportation Research Board of the National Academies. No. 1344."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Loken, M. (2005). Current State of the Art and Practise of Using GPR for Minnesota Roadway Applications, Office of Research Activities."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jappgeo.2004.10.002","article-title":"Evaluation of Infiltration in Layered Pavements Using Surface GPR Reflection Techniques","volume":"57","author":"Grote","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Appl. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"2267","article-title":"Calibration of Time Domain Reflectometry for Water Content Measurements Using Composite Dielectric Approach","volume":"26","author":"Roth","year":"1990","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"and Scullion, T. (1997). Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, Transportation Research Board of the National Academies. No 1568."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hammons, M.I., Von Quintus, H., Geary, G.M., Wu, P.Y., and Jared, D.M. (2006). Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, Transportation Research Board of the National Academies. No. 1949.","DOI":"10.1177\/0361198106194900103"},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Scullion, T., and Rmeili, E.H. (1997). Detection of Stripping in Asphalt Concrete Layers Using Ground Penetrating Radar, Research report 2964-S."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1016\/S0926-9851(99)00052-X","article-title":"Road Evaluation with Ground Penetrating Radar","volume":"43","author":"Saarenketo","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Appl. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ahmad, N., Lorenzl, H., and Wistuba, M.P. (2011, January 22\u201324). Crack detection in asphalt pavements\u2014How useful is the GPR?. Proceedings of the 6th International Workshop on Advanced Ground Penetrating Radar (IWAGPR), Aachen, Germany.","DOI":"10.1109\/IWAGPR.2011.5963857"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"966","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2018.01.179","article-title":"An experimental-based model for the assessment of the mechanical properties of road pavements using ground-penetrating radar","volume":"165","author":"Tosti","year":"2018","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Elseicy, A., Alonso-D\u00edaz, A., Solla, M., Rasol, M., and Santos-Assun\u00e7ao, S. (2022). Combined Use of GPR and Other NDTs for Road Pavement Assessment: An Overview. Remote. Sens., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14174336"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xiong, C., Yu, J., and Zhang, X. (2021). Use of NDT systems to investigate pavement reconstruction needs and improve maintenance treatment decision-making. Int. J. Pavement Eng., 1\u201315.","DOI":"10.1080\/10298436.2021.2011872"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1164","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2017.07.034","article-title":"Evaluation of a highway pavement using non-destructive tests: Falling Weight Deflectometer and Ground Penetrating Radar","volume":"154","author":"Marecos","year":"2017","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)1076-0342(2006)12:1(33)","article-title":"Failure Investigation of a Foamed-Asphalt Highway Project","volume":"12","author":"Chen","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Infrastruct. Syst."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1263","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2017.06.109","article-title":"Incorporation of GPR data into genetic algorithms for assessing recycled pavements","volume":"154","author":"Plati","year":"2017","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)0887-3828(2008)22:1(35)","article-title":"Forensic Investigations of Roadway Pavement Failures","volume":"22","author":"Chen","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Perform. Constr. Facil."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"222","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijprt.2016.05.002","article-title":"Research and verification of transfer model for roughness conditions of pavement constructio","volume":"9","author":"Bing","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Pavement Res. Technol."},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"268","article-title":"Design Factors Affecting the Initial Roughness of Asphalt Pavements","volume":"4","author":"Wen","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Pavement Res. Technol."},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"98","article-title":"Determination of Surface Roughness Index of Various Bituminous Pavements","volume":"13","author":"Yero","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Res. Rev. Appl. Sci."},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"1","article-title":"Investigation of Factors Affecting Pavement Roughness","volume":"132","author":"Elbheiry","year":"2011","journal-title":"Eng. Res. J."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130232","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2022.130232","article-title":"Highway performance prediction model of International Roughness Index based on panel data analysis in subtropical monsoon climate","volume":"366","author":"Sun","year":"2023","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4020020","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)IS.1943-555X.0000558","article-title":"Study of the Factors Affecting Road Roughness Measurement Using Smartphones","volume":"26","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Infrastruct. Syst."},{"key":"ref_35","first-page":"258","article-title":"Understanding the effects of structural factors and traffic loading on flexible pavement performance","volume":"12","author":"Bhandari","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Pavement Res. Technol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gkyrtis, K., Loizos, A., and Plati, C. (2021). Integrating Pavement Sensing Data for Pavement Condition Evaluation. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21093104"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.3141\/1853-19","article-title":"Comparison of As-Constructed and As-Designed Flexible Pavement Layer Thicknesses","volume":"Volume 1853","author":"Mladenovic","year":"2003","journal-title":"Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"525","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2011.09.007","article-title":"Investigation into causes of in-place rutting in asphalt pavement","volume":"28","author":"Xu","year":"2012","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.3141\/1730-09","article-title":"Incorporation of reliability into mechanistic-empirical pavement design","volume":"1730","author":"Timm","year":"2000","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Rec. J. Transp. Res. Board"},{"key":"ref_40","first-page":"46","article-title":"Estimation of standard deviation of predicted performance of flexible pavements using AASHTO Model","volume":"1449","author":"Noureldin","year":"1994","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Rec."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"Aguiar-Moya, J.P., Banerjee, A., and Prozzi, J.A. (2009, January 11\u201315). Sensitivity analysis of the M-E PDG using measured probability distributions of pavement layer thickness. Proceedings of the 88th Transportation Research Board Annual Meeting, Washington, DC, USA. Paper no. 09-0412."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"Geophysical Survey Sytems Inc. (2002). System Settings and User Notes, Geophysical Survey Sytems Inc."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"763","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2005.06.005","article-title":"Measuring Layer Thicknesses with GPR\u2014Theory to Practice","volume":"19","author":"Lahouar","year":"2005","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"Geophysical Survey Sytems Inc. (2002). Radan for Windows. User\u2019s Manual, Geophysical Survey Systems INC (GSSI), Geophysical Survey Sytems Inc."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"Roadscanners (Road Doctor Software, User\u2019s Guide, 2001). Road Doctor Software, User\u2019s Guide, Version 1.1."},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"Dynatest (Dynatest 5051 Mark III\/IV, Road Surface Profiler, Test Systems. Owner\u2019s Manual, 2007). Dynatest 5051 Mark III\/IV, Road Surface Profiler, Test Systems. Owner\u2019s Manual, Version 2.3.4."},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"Sayers, M.W., and Karamihas, S.M. (1998). The Little Book of Profiling: Basic Information about Measuring and Interpreting Road Profiles, Transportation Research Institute."},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"(2021). Standard Practice for Computing International Roughness Index of Roads from Longitudinal Profile Measurements (Standard No. ASTM. E 1926\u201398)."},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"Dynatest (2007). Dynatest Data Collection (DDC), Dynatest."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111248","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2022.111248","article-title":"Automatic detection of asphalt pavement thickness: A method combining GPR images and improved Canny algorithm","volume":"196","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ndteint.2006.09.001","article-title":"Accuracy of pavement thicknesses estimation using different ground penetrating radar analysis approaches","volume":"40","author":"Loizos","year":"2007","journal-title":"NDT E Int."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liuzzo-Scorpo, A., and Cook, A. (2017, January 28\u201330). Accuracy evaluation of traffic-speed coreless GPR techniques in pavement layer thickness estimation. Proceedings of the 9th International Workshop on Advanced Ground Penetrating Radar (IWAGPR), Edinburgh, UK.","DOI":"10.1109\/IWAGPR.2017.7996041"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2018.06.062","article-title":"Evaluation of the feasibility of Common Mid-Point approach for air-coupled GPR applied to road pavement assessment","volume":"128","author":"Marecos","year":"2018","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ndteint.2014.05.002","article-title":"An innovative method for measuring pavement dielectric constant using the extended CMP method with two air-coupled GPR systems","volume":"66","author":"Leng","year":"2014","journal-title":"NDTE Int."},{"key":"ref_55","unstructured":"Chen, Z., Olatubosun, O.O., Zhang, H., and Sun, R. (2016, January 14\u201317). Automatic detection of asphalt layer thickness based on Ground Penetrating Radar. Proceedings of the 2nd IEEE International Conference on Computer and Communications (ICCC), Chengdu, China."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ndteint.2018.08.005","article-title":"Continuous real-time monitoring of flexible pavement layer density and thickness using ground penetrating radar","volume":"100","author":"Wang","year":"2018","journal-title":"NDT E Int."},{"key":"ref_57","unstructured":"Saarenketo, T. (2006). Electrical Properties of Road Materials and Subgrade Soils and the Use of Ground Penetrating Radar in Traffic Infrastructure Surveys. [Ph.D. Thesis, University of Oulu]."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1045","DOI":"10.1016\/j.proeng.2010.03.113","article-title":"Simulation-based extreme value marked correlations in fatigue of advanced engineering alloys","volume":"2","author":"Przybyla","year":"2010","journal-title":"Procedia Eng."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/15\/12\/3011\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T19:51:13Z","timestamp":1760125873000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/15\/12\/3011"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,8]]},"references-count":58,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,6]]}},"alternative-id":["rs15123011"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs15123011","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2072-4292"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,8]]}}}