{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,3]],"date-time":"2026-04-03T09:41:37Z","timestamp":1775209297984,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":92,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,12]],"date-time":"2023-06-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1686528000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004281","name":"Polish National Science Centre Project","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2019\/33\/B\/ST10\/02975"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2019\/33\/B\/ST10\/02975"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004281","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Polish National Agency for Academic Exchange (NAWA) Bekker programme","award":["2019\/33\/B\/ST10\/02975"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2019\/33\/B\/ST10\/02975"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The motivation for this study arises from the need to monitor the condition of a rehabilitated post-mining areas even decades after the end of the recovery phase. This can be facilitated with satellite derived spectral vegetation indices and Geographic Information System (GIS) based spatiotemporal analysis. The study area described in this work is located in Western Poland and has unique characteristics, as it was subjected to the combined underground and open pit mining of lignite deposits that had been shaped by glaciotectonic processes. The mining ended in early 1970\u2019ties and the area was subjected to reclamation procedures that ended in the 1980\u2019ties. We used the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) and the Enhanced Vegetation Index (EVI) spectral indices derived from Sentinel-2 data for the 2015\u20132022. period. Then, we applied a combination of GIS-based map algebra statistics (local, zonal and combinatorial) and GI* spatial statistics (hot spot and temporal hot spot) for a complex analysis and assessment of the vegetation cover condition in a post-mining area thought to be in the rehabilitated phase. The mean values of NDVI and EVI for the post-mining study area range from 0.48 to 0.64 and 0.24 to 0.31 and are stable in the analyzed 8 year period. This indicates general good condition of the vegetation and post-recovery phase of the area of interest. However, the combination of spatiotemporal analysis allowed us to identify statistically significant clusters of higher and lower values of the vegetation indices and change of vegetation cover classes on 3% of the study area. These clusters signify the occurrence of local processes such as, the encroachment of aquatic vegetation in waterlogged subsidence basins, and growth of low vegetation in old pits filled with waste material, barren earth zones on external waste dumps, as well as present-day forest management activities. We have confirmed that significant vegetation changes related to former mining occur even five decades later. Furthermore, we identified clusters of the highest values that are associated with zones of older, healthy forest and deciduous tree species. The results confirmed applicability of Sentinel-2 derived vegetation indices for studies of post-mining environment and for the detection of local phenomena related to natural landscaping processes still taking place in the study area. The methodology adopted for this study consisting of a combination of GIS-based data mining methods can be used in combination or separately in other areas of interest, as well as aid their sustainable management.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs15123067","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,13]],"date-time":"2023-06-13T02:00:45Z","timestamp":1686621645000},"page":"3067","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":13,"title":["Integrated Spatiotemporal Analysis of Vegetation Condition in a Complex Post-Mining Area: Lignite Mine Case Study"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2630-3459","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jan","family":"Blachowski","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Geoengineering, Mining and Geology, Department of Geodesy and Geoinformatics, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology, 50-421 Wroc\u0142aw, Poland"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3552-2506","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Aleksandra","family":"Dynowski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Geoengineering, Mining and Geology, Department of Geodesy and Geoinformatics, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology, 50-421 Wroc\u0142aw, Poland"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4440-8070","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anna","family":"Buczy\u0144ska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Geoengineering, Mining and Geology, Department of Geodesy and Geoinformatics, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology, 50-421 Wroc\u0142aw, Poland"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8799-9819","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Steinar L.","family":"Ellefmo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geoscience and Petroleum, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, 7491 Trondheim, Norway"}]},{"given":"Natalia","family":"Walerysiak","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Geoengineering, Mining and Geology, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology, 50-421 Wroc\u0142aw, Poland"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"445","article-title":"Reclamation and Land Development Directions\u2014Selection Method, Classification and Examples","volume":"34","author":"Uberman","year":"2010","journal-title":"Min. Geoengin."},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"141","article-title":"Once Again about the Directions of Reclamation and Their Choice, Critically","volume":"136","author":"Naworyta","year":"2013","journal-title":"Min. Sci."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mudroch, A., Stottmeister, U., Kennedy, C., and Klapper, H. (2002). Remediation of Abandoned Surface Coal Mining Sites: A NATO-Project, Springer. Environmental Engineering.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-662-04734-7"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"703","DOI":"10.1007\/s11056-015-9506-4","article-title":"Forest Restoration Following Surface Mining Disturbance: Challenges and Solutions","volume":"46","author":"Macdonald","year":"2015","journal-title":"New For."},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"187","article-title":"Mining anthropogenic environments\u2014objects of observation of geomorphological and biological processes (on the example of the Silesian Voivodeship)","volume":"111","author":"Molenda","year":"2005","journal-title":"Sci. Work. Min. Inst. Wroc\u0142aw Univ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1515\/environ-2015-0026","article-title":"Landscape Management on Post-Exploitation Land Using the Example of the Silesian Region, Poland","volume":"2","year":"2014","journal-title":"Environ. Socio-Econ. Stud."},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"255","article-title":"Research Areas in Post-Mining\u2014Experiences from German Hard Coal Mining","volume":"1","author":"Kretschmann","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Pol. Miner. Eng. Soc."},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"168","article-title":"Geomonitoring Im Alt- Und Nachbergbau","volume":"33","author":"Rudolph","year":"2020","journal-title":"ZfV-Z. Geod\u00e4sie Geoinf. Landmanag."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"353","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2018.01.050","article-title":"Detecting the Dynamics of Vegetation Disturbance and Recovery in Surface Mining Area via Landsat Imagery and LandTrendr Algorithm","volume":"178","author":"Yang","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Blachowski, J., Kope\u0107, A., Milczarek, W., and Owczarz, K. (2019). Evolution of Secondary Deformations Captured by Satellite Radar Interferometry: Case Study of an Abandoned Coal Basin in SW Poland. Sustainability, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/su11030884"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1080\/17480930.2012.710505","article-title":"SPOTing Long-Term Changes in Vegetation over Short-Term Variability","volume":"28","author":"Bao","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Min. Reclam. Environ."},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"29","article-title":"Assessing Land Cover Change Resulting from Large Surface Mining Development","volume":"7","author":"Latifovic","year":"2005","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107264","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolind.2020.107264","article-title":"A Historical and Future Impact Assessment of Mining Activities on Surface Biophysical Characteristics Change: A Remote Sensing-Based Approach","volume":"122","author":"Firozjaei","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ecol. Indic."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bandopadhyay, S., Rastogi, A., and Juszczak, R. (2020). Review of Top-of-Canopy Sun-Induced Fluorescence (SIF) Studies from Ground, UAV, Airborne to Spaceborne Observations. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20041144"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1080\/02757259509532298","article-title":"A Review of Vegetation Indices","volume":"13","author":"Bannari","year":"1995","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Rev."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Pearson, R.L., and Miller, L.D. (1972). Remote Mapping of Standing Crop Biomass for Estimation of the Productivity of the Shortgrass Prairie, Pawnee National Grasslands, Colorado, Environmental Research Institution of Michigan."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1016\/0034-4257(94)90134-1","article-title":"A Modified Soil Adjusted Vegetation Index","volume":"48","author":"Qi","year":"1994","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Plummer, S.E., North, P.R., and Briggs, S.A. (1994). The Angular Vegetation Index: An Atmospherically Resistant Index for the Second along Track Scanning Radiometer (ATSR-2), ISPRS."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1353691","DOI":"10.1155\/2017\/1353691","article-title":"Significant Remote Sensing Vegetation Indices: A Review of Developments and Applications","volume":"2017","author":"Xue","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Sens."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Henrich, V., Krauss, G., G\u00f6tze, C., and Sandow, C. (2022, September 22). IDB\u2014Entwicklung Einer Datenbank F\u00fcr Fernerkundungsindizes. (In German)."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"012034","DOI":"10.1088\/1755-1315\/942\/1\/012034","article-title":"Review of Vegetation Indices for Studies of Post-Mining Processes","volume":"942","author":"Pawlik","year":"2021","journal-title":"IOP Conf. Ser. Earth Environ. Sci."},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"1","article-title":"Badania Studies of components of the natural environment on post-mining areas with using high-resolution satellite imagery","volume":"1168","year":"2020","journal-title":"Min. Rev."},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"251","article-title":"Character Analysis of Mining Disturbance and Reclamation 786 Trajectory in Surface Coal-Mine Area by Time-Series NDVI","volume":"31","author":"Zipper","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nongye Gongcheng Xuebao\/Trans. Chin. Soc. Agric. Eng."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"272","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jenvman.2016.07.070","article-title":"Assessment of the Capability of Remote Sensing and GIS Techniques for Monitoring Reclamation Success in Coal Mine Degraded Lands","volume":"182","author":"Karan","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Yao, Z., and Wei, Z. (2016, January 4\u20136). Correlation Analysis between Vegetation Fraction and Vegetation Indices in Reclaimed Forest: A Case Study in Pingshuo Mining Area. Proceedings of the 2016 4th International Workshop on Earth Observation and Remote Sensing Applications (EORSA), Guangzhou, China."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Padmanaban, R., Bhowmik, A., and Cabral, P. (2017). A Remote Sensing Approach to Environmental Monitoring in a Reclaimed Mine Area. ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf., 6.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi6120401"},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"232","article-title":"Analysis of Land Damage and Recovery Process in Rare Earth Mining Area Based on Multi-Source Sequential NDVI","volume":"34","author":"Li","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nongye Gongcheng Xuebao\/Trans. Chin. Soc. Agric. Eng."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wu, Q., Liu, K., Song, C., Wang, J., Ke, L., Ma, R., Zhang, W., Pan, H., and Deng, X. (2018). Remote Sensing Detection of Vegetation and Landform Damages by Coal Mining on the Tibetan Plateau. Sustainability, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/su10113851"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kope\u0107, A., Tryba\u0142a, P., G\u0142\u0105bicki, D., Buczy\u0144ska, A., Owczarz, K., Bugajska, N., Kozi\u0144ska, P., Chojwa, M., and Gattner, A. (2020). Application of Remote Sensing, GIS and Machine Learning with Geographically Weighted Regression in Assessing the Impact of Hard Coal Mining on the Natural Environment. Sustainability, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/su12229338"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137250","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2020.137250","article-title":"Assessing Vegetation Recovery in Reclaimed Opencast Mines of the Teruel Coalfield (Spain) Using Landsat Time Series and Boosted Regression Trees","volume":"717","author":"Nicolau","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1007\/s10661-020-08834-w","article-title":"Changes Detected in the Extent of Surface Mining and Reclamation Using Multitemporal Landsat Imagery: A Case Study of Jiu Valley, Romania","volume":"193","author":"Vorovencii","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Monit. Assess."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114352","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jenvman.2021.114352","article-title":"Identification of Land Reclamation Stages Based on Succession Characteristics of Rehabilitated Vegetation in the Pingshuo Opencast Coal Mine","volume":"305","author":"Guan","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s11676-020-01155-1","article-title":"A Commentary Review on the Use of Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) in the Era of Popular Remote Sensing","volume":"32","author":"Huang","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. For. Res."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"997","DOI":"10.1007\/s11069-016-2470-2","article-title":"Application of GIS Spatial Regression Methods in Assessment of Land Subsidence in Complicated Mining Conditions: Case Study of the Walbrzych Coal Mine (SW Poland)","volume":"84","author":"Blachowski","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards"},{"key":"ref_35","first-page":"14","article-title":"Possibility of Optimized Indices for the Assessment of Heavy Metal Contents in Soil around an Open Pit Coal Mine Area","volume":"73","author":"Sawut","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1007\/s12665-018-8022-1","article-title":"Assessment of Mining-Related Seabed Subsidence Using GIS Spatial Regression Methods: A Case Study of the Sanshandao Gold Mine (Laizhou, Shandong Province, China)","volume":"78","author":"Cao","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"323","DOI":"10.1080\/10106049.2012.706648","article-title":"Change Detection of Surface Mining Activity and Reclamation Based on a Machine Learning Approach of Multi-Temporal Landsat TM Imagery","volume":"28","author":"Petropoulos","year":"2013","journal-title":"Geocarto Int."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.5194\/isprs-archives-XLII-3-199-2018","article-title":"Object-Based Random Forest Classification of Land Cover from Remotely Sensed Imagery for Industrial and Mining Reclamation","volume":"XLII\u20133","author":"Chen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"1017","article-title":"The Analysis of Object-Based Change Detection in Mining Area: A Case Study with Pingshuo Coal","volume":"XLII-2\/W7","author":"Zhang","year":"2017","journal-title":"ISPRS Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1007\/s10661-017-5893-7","article-title":"Assessing Post-Industrial Land Cover Change at the Pine Point Mine, NWT, Canada Using Multi-Temporal Landsat Analysis and Landscape Metrics","volume":"189","author":"LeClerc","year":"2017","journal-title":"Environ. Monit. Assess."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Szostak, M., Knapik, K., W\u0119\u017cyk, P., Likus-Cie\u015blik, J., and Pietrzykowski, M. (2019). Fusing Sentinel-2 Imagery and ALS Point Clouds for Defining LULC Changes on Reclaimed Areas by Afforestation. Sustainability, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/su11051251"},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"(2022, September 22). European Space Agency User Guides\u2014Sentinel-2 MSI\u2014Sentinel Online\u2014Sentinel Online. Available online: https:\/\/sentinels.copernicus.eu\/web\/sentinel\/user-guides\/sentinel-2-msi."},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"3","article-title":"Geological structure of the Polish part of the Muskau Arch","volume":"192","author":"Dyjor","year":"1973","journal-title":"Acta. Univ. Wratislaviensis. Pr. Geol.-Miner."},{"key":"ref_44","first-page":"1","article-title":"Geologischer Bau Und Genese Der Stauchendmor\u00e4ne Muskauer Faltenbogen","volume":"2","author":"Kupetz","year":"1973","journal-title":"Brandenbg. Geowiss. Beitr\u00e4ge"},{"key":"ref_45","first-page":"5","article-title":"Anthropogenic landscape changes connected with the old brown coal mining based on the example of the polish part of the Muskau arch area","volume":"57","year":"2016","journal-title":"Opencast Min."},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"Greinert, H., Drab, M., and Greinert, A. (2009). Studies on the Effectiveness of Forest Restoration of the Phytotoxic Acid Miocene Sands Dumps of the Former Lignite Mine in \u0141\u0119knica, Publishing House of the University of Zielona G\u00f3ra. (In Polish)."},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"Greinert, A., Bazan-Krzywosza\u0144ska, A., Drab, M., Fiszer, J., Gontaszewska, A., Jachimko, B., J\u0119drczak, A., Krai\u0144ski, A., Krzaklewski, W., and Maciantowicz, M. (2015). Lignite Mining and Reclamation of Post-Mining Areas in the Lubuskie Region, Institute of Environmental Engineering of the University of Zielona G\u00f3ra. (In Polish)."},{"key":"ref_48","first-page":"20","article-title":"Lignite seams in the Muskau arch\u2014sedimentation conditions, stratigraphic position, deposits importance","volume":"58","year":"2017","journal-title":"Opencast Min."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Oszkinis-Golon, M., Frankowski, M., Jerzak, L., and Pukacz, A. (2020). Physicochemical Differentiation of the Muskau Arch Pit Lakes in the Light of Long-Term Changes. Water, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/w12092368"},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"Ko\u017ama, J. (2018). Analysis of the Landscape Evolution of the Polish Part of the Muskau Arch and Its Valorisation in the Aspect of Protection of Geological Heritage. [Ph.D. Dissertation, The Polish Geological Institute\u2014National Research Institute]."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Blachowski, J., Warchala, E., Ko\u017ama, J., Buczy\u0144ska, A., Bugajska, N., Becker, M., Janicki, D., Kujawa, P., Kwa\u015bny, L., and Wajs, J. (2022). Geophysical Research of Secondary Deformations in the Post Mining Area of the Glaciotectonic Muskau Arch Geopark\u2014Preliminary Results. Appl. Sci., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/app12031194"},{"key":"ref_52","unstructured":"and Hoersch, B. (2015). Sentinel-2 User Handbook, European Space Agency."},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"Mueller-Wilm, U., Devignot, O., and Pessiot, L. (2020). S2 MPC Sen2Cor Configuration and User Manual, European Space Agency."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Matejicek, L., and Kopackova, V. (2010). Changes in Croplands as a Result of Large Scale Mining and the Associated Impact on Food Security Studied Using Time-Series Landsat Images. Remote Sens., 2.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs2061463"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhu, X., Zhou, Y., Yang, Y., Hou, H., Zhang, S., and Liu, R. (2020). Estimation of the Restored Forest Spatial Structure in Semi-Arid Mine Dumps Using Worldview-2 Imagery. Forests, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/f11060695"},{"key":"ref_56","unstructured":"Rouse, J.W., Haas, R.H., Schell, J.A., and Deering, D.W. (1974). Monitoring Vegetation Systems in the Great Plains with ERTS, NASA."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1016\/0034-4257(79)90013-0","article-title":"Red and Photographic Infrared Linear Combinations for Monitoring Vegetation","volume":"8","author":"Tucker","year":"1979","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"481","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.1995.8746029","article-title":"The Interpretation of Spectral Vegetation Indexes","volume":"33","author":"Myneni","year":"1995","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chnaes.2013.09.005","article-title":"Vegetation Variation of Mid-Subtropical Forest Based on MODIS NDVI Data\u2014A Case Study of Jinggangshan City, Jiangxi Province","volume":"34","author":"Zhang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Acta Ecol. Sin."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.2307\/1942049","article-title":"Relationships Between NDVI, Canopy Structure, and Photosynthesis in Three Californian Vegetation Types","volume":"5","author":"Gamon","year":"1995","journal-title":"Ecol. Appl."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(02)00096-2","article-title":"Overview of the Radiometric and Biophysical Performance of the MODIS Vegetation Indices","volume":"83","author":"Huete","year":"2002","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pettorelli, N. (2014). The Normalized Difference Vegetation Index, OUP Oxford.","DOI":"10.1093\/acprof:osobl\/9780199693160.001.0001"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100376","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envc.2021.100376","article-title":"Association of Vegetation Indices with Atmospheric & Biological Factors Using MODIS Time Series Products","volume":"5","author":"Bari","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Chall."},{"key":"ref_64","unstructured":"Tomlin, D. (1990). Geographic Information Systems and Cartographic Modeling, Prentice Hall."},{"key":"ref_65","unstructured":"(2023, February 03). Statsoft Electronic Statistics Textbook. Available online: https:\/\/www.statsoft.pl\/textbook\/stathome.html."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1007\/s12665-022-10175-5","article-title":"Emerging Hot Spot Analysis and the Spatial\u2013Temporal Trends of NDVI in the Jing River Basin of China","volume":"81","author":"Xu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1538-4632.1992.tb00261.x","article-title":"The Analysis of Spatial Association by Use of Distance Statistics","volume":"24","author":"Getis","year":"1992","journal-title":"Geogr. Anal."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"286","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1538-4632.1995.tb00912.x","article-title":"Local Spatial Autocorrelation Statistics: Distributional Issues and an Application","volume":"27","author":"Ord","year":"1995","journal-title":"Geogr. Anal."},{"key":"ref_69","unstructured":"(2022, September 22). ESRI How Hot Spot Analysis (Getis-Ord Gi*) Works\u2014ArcGIS Pro|Documentation. Available online: https:\/\/pro.arcgis.com\/en\/pro-app\/2.8\/tool-reference\/spatial-statistics\/h-how-hot-spot-analysis-getis-ord-gi-spatial-stati.htm."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nallan, S.A., Armstrong, L.J., Tripathy, A.K., and Teluguntla, P. (2015). Hot Spot Analysis Using NDVI Data for Impact Assessment of Watershed Development, IEEE.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICTSD.2015.7095869"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, L., Luo, H., and Zhang, X. (2022). Land-Greening Hotspot Changes in the Yangtze River Economic Belt during the Last Four Decades and Their Connections to Human Activities. Land, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/land11050605"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6573","DOI":"10.1007\/s13762-021-03852-8","article-title":"Spatial Statistics Techniques for SPEI and NDVI Drought Indices: A Case Study of Khuzestan Province","volume":"19","author":"Nejadrekabi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"362","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(00)00078-X","article-title":"Hotspot and NDVI Differencing Synergy (HANDS): A New Technique for Burned Area Mapping over Boreal Forest","volume":"74","author":"Fraser","year":"2000","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_74","unstructured":"(2022, September 22). StatSoft Electronic Manual of Statistics. (In Polish)."},{"key":"ref_75","unstructured":"(2023, February 03). ADMS\u2014Agricultural Drought Monitoring System. Available online: https:\/\/susza.iung.pulawy.pl\/en."},{"key":"ref_76","unstructured":"(2022, September 22). ESRI How Emerging Hot Spot Analysis Works\u2014ArcGIS Pro|Documentation. Available online: https:\/\/pro.arcgis.com\/en\/pro-app\/latest\/tool-reference\/space-time-pattern-mining\/learnmoreemerging.htm."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"690","DOI":"10.1007\/s11119-015-9402-0","article-title":"Influence of Soil, Crop Residue, and Sensor Orientations on NDVI Readings","volume":"16","author":"Jones","year":"2015","journal-title":"Precis. Agric"},{"key":"ref_78","unstructured":"Bartkowiak, K. (2021). Analysis of the Relationship between the State of Vegetation and Former Mining Activity in a Selected Area of the Former Mine \u201cPrzyja\u017a\u0144 Narod\u00f3w\u2014Shaft Babina. [Master\u2019s Thesis, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology]. (In Polish, unpublished)."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1099-145X(200003\/04)11:2<99::AID-LDR368>3.0.CO;2-I","article-title":"Development Options of Natural Habitats in a Post-Mining Landscape","volume":"11","author":"Schulz","year":"2000","journal-title":"Land Degrad. Dev."},{"key":"ref_80","unstructured":"(2022, September 22). National Forest\u2014Forest Data Bank, Available online: https:\/\/www.bdl.lasy.gov.pl\/portal\/mapy-en."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"447","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoleng.2016.06.051","article-title":"Vegetation coverage change and stability in large open-pit coal mine dumps in China during 1990\u20142015","volume":"95","author":"Liu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ecol. Eng."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"503","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tree.2005.05.011","article-title":"Using the Satellite-Derived NDVI to Assess Ecological Responses to Environmental Change","volume":"20","author":"Pettorelli","year":"2005","journal-title":"Trends Ecol. Evol."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2136","DOI":"10.3390\/s8042136","article-title":"Relationship Between Remotely-Sensed Vegetation Indices, Canopy Attributes and Plant Physiological Processes: What Vegetation Indices Can and Cannot Tell Us About the Landscape","volume":"8","author":"Glenn","year":"2008","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coal.2010.12.009","article-title":"Remote sensing of vegetation health for reclaimed areas of Seyit\u00f6mer open cast coal mine","volume":"86","author":"Erener","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Coal Geol."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Buczy\u0144ska, A., Blachowski, J., and Bugajska-J\u0119draszek, N. (2023). Analysis of Post-Mining Vegetation Development Using Remote Sensing and Spatial Regression Approach: A Case Study of Former Babina Mine (Western Poland). Remote Sens., 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs15030719"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1908","DOI":"10.3389\/fpls.2017.01908","article-title":"The Effect of Season-Long Temperature Increases on Rice Cultivars Grown in the Central and Southern Regions of China","volume":"8","author":"Yang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Plant Sci."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pce.2019.01.006","article-title":"Impacts of land use and land cover changes on hydrology of the Gumara catchment, Ethiopia","volume":"112","author":"Birhanu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Phys. Chem. Earth Parts A\/B\/C"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2007.03.003","article-title":"Rule-based classification of multi-temporal satellite imagery for habitat and agricultural land cover mapping","volume":"62","author":"Lucas","year":"2007","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hu, Y., Raza, A., Syed, N.R., Acharki, S., Ray, R.L., Hussain, S., Dehghanisanij, H., Zubair, M., and Elbeltagi, A. (2023). Land Use\/Land Cover Change Detection and NDVI Estimation in Pakistan\u2019s Southern Punjab Province. Sustainability, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/su15043572"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2897","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2010.07.008","article-title":"Detecting Trends in Forest Disturbance and Recovery Using Yearly Landsat Time Series: 1. LandTrendr\u2014Temporal Segmentation Algorithms","volume":"114","author":"Kennedy","year":"2010","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, Y., Xie, M., Liu, J., Wang, H., and Chen, B. (2022). Vegetation Disturbance and Recovery Dynamics of Different Surface Mining Sites via the LandTrend Algorithm: Case Study in Inner Mongolia, China. Land, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/land11060856"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1650","DOI":"10.1002\/ldr.2303","article-title":"The Impact of Underground Longwall Mining on Prime Agricultural Land: A Review and Research Agenda","volume":"27","author":"Lechner","year":"2016","journal-title":"Land Degrad. Dev."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/15\/12\/3067\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T19:53:16Z","timestamp":1760125996000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/15\/12\/3067"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,12]]},"references-count":92,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,6]]}},"alternative-id":["rs15123067"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs15123067","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,12]]}}}