{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,10]],"date-time":"2026-04-10T21:21:00Z","timestamp":1775856060996,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":58,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,13]],"date-time":"2023-06-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1686614400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000270","name":"Natural Environment Research Council (NERC)","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NE\/S007407\/1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NE\/S007407\/1"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000270","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000270","name":"Natural Environment Research Council (NERC)","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NE\/R016860\/1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NE\/R016860\/1"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000270","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000270","name":"Natural Environment Research Council (NERC)","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NE\/R016518\/1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NE\/R016518\/1"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000270","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000270","name":"CongoPeat","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NE\/S007407\/1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NE\/S007407\/1"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000270","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000270","name":"CongoPeat","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NE\/R016860\/1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NE\/R016860\/1"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000270","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000270","name":"CongoPeat","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NE\/R016518\/1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NE\/R016518\/1"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000270","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000270","name":"UK National Centre for Earth Observation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NE\/S007407\/1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NE\/S007407\/1"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000270","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000270","name":"UK National Centre for Earth Observation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NE\/R016860\/1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NE\/R016860\/1"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000270","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000270","name":"UK National Centre for Earth Observation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NE\/R016518\/1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NE\/R016518\/1"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000270","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Inundation dynamics are the primary control on greenhouse gas emissions from peatlands. Situated in the central Congo Basin, the Cuvette Centrale is the largest tropical peatland complex. However, our knowledge of the spatial and temporal variations in its water levels is limited. By addressing this gap, we can quantify the relationship between the Cuvette Centrale\u2019s water levels and greenhouse gas emissions, and further provide a baseline from which deviations caused by climate or land-use change can be observed, and their impacts understood. We present here a novel approach that combines satellite-derived rainfall, evapotranspiration and L-band Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) data to estimate spatial and temporal changes in water level across a sub-region of the Cuvette Centrale. Our key outputs are a map showing the spatial distribution of rainfed and flood-prone locations and a daily, 100 m resolution map of peatland water levels. This map is validated using satellite altimetry data and in situ water table data from water loggers. We determine that 50% of peatlands within our study area are largely rainfed, and a further 22.5% are somewhat rainfed, receiving hydrological input mostly from rainfall (directly and via surface\/sub-surface inputs in sloped areas). The remaining 27.5% of peatlands are mainly situated in riverine floodplain areas to the east of the Congo River and between the Ubangui and Congo rivers. The mean amplitude of the water level across our study area and over a 20-month period is 22.8 \u00b1 10.1 cm to 1 standard deviation. Maximum temporal variations in water levels occur in the riverine floodplain areas and in the inter-fluvial region between the Ubangui and Congo rivers. Our results show that spatial and temporal changes in water levels can be successfully mapped over tropical peatlands using the pattern of net water input (rainfall minus evapotranspiration, not accounting for run-off) and L-band SAR data.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs15123099","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,14]],"date-time":"2023-06-14T02:01:40Z","timestamp":1686708100000},"page":"3099","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":12,"title":["Mapping Water Levels across a Region of the Cuvette Centrale Peatland Complex"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Selena","family":"Georgiou","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of GeoSciences, King\u2019s Buildings, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3JN, UK"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5690-4055","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Edward T. A.","family":"Mitchard","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of GeoSciences, King\u2019s Buildings, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3JN, UK"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1459-6402","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bart","family":"Crezee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Geography, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK"}]},{"given":"Greta C.","family":"Dargie","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Geography, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK"}]},{"given":"Dylan M.","family":"Young","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Geography, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7824-0501","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Antonio J.","family":"Jovani-Sancho","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"UK Centre for Ecology & Hydrology, Bangor LL57 2UW, UK"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9899-2842","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Benjamin","family":"Kitambo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"LEGOS, Universit\u00e9 de Toulouse, IRD, CNES, CNRS, UPS, 31400 Toulouse, France"},{"name":"Congo Basin Water Resources Research Center (CRREBaC), Department of Natural Resources Management, University of Kinshasa (UNIKIN), Kinshasa BP 190, Democratic Republic of the Congo"},{"name":"Faculty of Sciences, Department of Geology, University of Lubumbashi (UNILU), Route Kasapa, Lubumbashi BP 1825, Democratic Republic of the Congo"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6305-6253","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fabrice","family":"Papa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"LEGOS, Universit\u00e9 de Toulouse, IRD, CNES, CNRS, UPS, 31400 Toulouse, France"},{"name":"Instituto de Geoci\u00eancias, IRD, Universidade de Bras\u00edlia (UnB), Bras\u00edlia 70297-400, Brazil"}]},{"given":"Yannick E.","family":"Bocko","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratoire de Botanique et Ecologie, Facult\u00e9 des Sciences et Techniques, Universit\u00e9 Marien Ngouabi, Brazzaville BP 69, Democratic Republic of the Congo"}]},{"given":"Pierre","family":"Bola","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"D\u00e9partement de Biologie, G\u00e9ographie et Gestion de l\u2019environnement, Institut Sup\u00e9rieur P\u00e9dagogique de Mbandaka, Mbandaka BP 116, Democratic Republic of the Congo"}]},{"given":"Dafydd E.","family":"Crabtree","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"UK Centre for Ecology & Hydrology, Bangor LL57 2UW, UK"}]},{"given":"Ovide B.","family":"Emba","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"D\u00e9partement de Biologie, G\u00e9ographie et Gestion de l\u2019environnement, Institut Sup\u00e9rieur P\u00e9dagogique de Mbandaka, Mbandaka BP 116, Democratic Republic of the Congo"}]},{"given":"Corneille E. N.","family":"Ewango","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Facult\u00e9 de Gestion des Ressources Naturelles Renouvelables, Universit\u00e9 de Kisangani, Kisangani BP 2012, Democratic Republic of the Congo"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7562-5775","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nicholas T.","family":"Girkin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Water, Energy and Environment, Cranfield University, Cranfield MK43 0JR, UK"}]},{"given":"Suspense A.","family":"Ifo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratoire de Botanique et Ecologie, Facult\u00e9 des Sciences et Techniques, Universit\u00e9 Marien Ngouabi, Brazzaville BP 69, Democratic Republic of the Congo"}]},{"given":"Joseph T.","family":"Kanyama","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Facult\u00e9 de Gestion des Ressources Naturelles Renouvelables, Universit\u00e9 de Kisangani, Kisangani BP 2012, Democratic Republic of the Congo"}]},{"given":"Yeto Emmanuel Wenina","family":"Mampouya","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratoire de Botanique et Ecologie, Facult\u00e9 des Sciences et Techniques, Universit\u00e9 Marien Ngouabi, Brazzaville BP 69, Democratic Republic of the Congo"}]},{"given":"Mackline","family":"Mbemba","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratoire de Botanique et Ecologie, Facult\u00e9 des Sciences et Techniques, Universit\u00e9 Marien Ngouabi, Brazzaville BP 69, Democratic Republic of the Congo"}]},{"given":"Jean-Bosco N.","family":"Ndjango","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Facult\u00e9 de Gestion des Ressources Naturelles Renouvelables, Universit\u00e9 de Kisangani, Kisangani BP 2012, Democratic Republic of the Congo"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1487-0969","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Paul. I.","family":"Palmer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of GeoSciences, King\u2019s Buildings, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3JN, UK"},{"name":"National Centre for Earth Observation, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3JN, UK"}]},{"given":"Sofie","family":"Sj\u00f6gersten","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biosciences, University of Nottingham, Loughborough LE12 5RD, UK"}]},{"given":"Simon L.","family":"Lewis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Geography, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK"},{"name":"Department of Geography, University College London, London WC1E 6BT, UK"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"620","DOI":"10.1071\/MF17019","article-title":"Global extent and distribution of wetlands: Trends and issues","volume":"69","author":"Davidson","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mar. Freshw. Res."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"583","DOI":"10.1007\/s10980-012-9758-8","article-title":"Wetlands, carbon, and climate change","volume":"28","author":"Mitsch","year":"2013","journal-title":"Landsc. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"400","DOI":"10.1007\/s00027-006-0856-z","article-title":"The comparative biodiversity of seven globally important wetlands: A synthesis","volume":"68","author":"Junk","year":"2006","journal-title":"Aquat. Sci."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"439","DOI":"10.1038\/nature05132","article-title":"Contribution of anthropogenic and natural sources to atmospheric methane variability","volume":"443","author":"Bousquet","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"094013","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-9326\/aa8391","article-title":"Global wetland contribution to 2000\u20132012 atmospheric methane growth rate dynamics","volume":"12","author":"Poulter","year":"2017","journal-title":"Environ. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"074009","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-9326\/aac939","article-title":"Enhanced response of global wetland methane emissions to the 2015\u20132016 El Ni\u00f1o-Southern Oscillation event","volume":"13","author":"Zhang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Environ. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2001","DOI":"10.5194\/essd-13-2001-2021","article-title":"Development of the global dataset of Wetland Area and Dynamics for Methane Modeling (WAD2M)","volume":"13","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Earth Syst. Sci. Data"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1089\/ees.2005.22.73","article-title":"Biogeochemistry of methane exchange between natural wetlands and the atmosphere","volume":"22","author":"Whalen","year":"2005","journal-title":"Environ. Eng. Sci."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"D02304","DOI":"10.1029\/2006JD007268","article-title":"Satellite charactography of atmospheric methane from SCIAMACHY on board ENVISAT: 2. Evaluation based on inverse model simulations","volume":"112","author":"Bergamaschi","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"GB2003","DOI":"10.1029\/2008GB003354","article-title":"An attempt to quantify the impact of changes in wetland extent on methane emissions on the seasonal and interannual time scales","volume":"24","author":"Ringeval","year":"2010","journal-title":"Glob. Biogeochem. Cycles"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1038\/nature21048","article-title":"Age, extent and carbon storage of the central Congo Basin peatland complex","volume":"542","author":"Dargie","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"489","DOI":"10.1111\/gcb.15408","article-title":"Tropical peatlands and their contribution to the global carbon cycle and climate change","volume":"27","author":"Ribeiro","year":"2021","journal-title":"Glob. Change Biol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1715","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2486.2009.02016.x","article-title":"Greenhouse gas fluxes from tropical peatlands in south-east Asia","volume":"16","author":"Couwenberg","year":"2010","journal-title":"Glob. Change Biol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1174","DOI":"10.1002\/2013WR014310","article-title":"Basin-scale performance of a semidistributed rainfall-runoff model for hydrological predictions and water resources assessment of large rivers: The Congo River","volume":"50","author":"Tshimanga","year":"2014","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2014.11.030","article-title":"Mapping wetland water depths over the central Congo Basin using PALSAR ScanSAR, Envisat altimetry, and MODIS VCF data","volume":"159","author":"Lee","year":"2015","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Lee, H., Jung, H.C., Yuan, T., Beighley, R.E., and Duan, J. (2014). Remote Sensing of the Terrestrial Water Cycle, Wiley Online Library."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Frappart, F., Zeiger, P., Betbeder, J., Gond, V., Bellot, R., Baghdadi, N., Blarel, F., Darrozes, J., Bourrel, L., and Seyler, F. (2021). Automatic detection of inland water bodies along altimetry tracks for estimating surface water storage variations in the congo basin. Remote Sens., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13193804"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2448","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2010.05.020","article-title":"Seasonal water storage on the Amazon floodplain measured from satellites","volume":"114","author":"Alsdorf","year":"2010","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"378","DOI":"10.1002\/2016RG000517","article-title":"Opportunities for hydrologic research in the Congo Basin","volume":"54","author":"Alsdorf","year":"2016","journal-title":"Rev. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11951","DOI":"10.1002\/2013JD020500","article-title":"Surface freshwater storage and variability in the Amazon basin from multi-satellite observations, 1993\u20132007","volume":"118","author":"Papa","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Salameh, E., Frappart, F., Papa, F., G\u00fcntner, A., Venugopal, V., Getirana, A., Prigent, C., Aires, F., Labat, D., and Laignel, B. (2017). Fifteen years (1993\u20132007) of surface freshwater storage variability in the ganges-brahmaputra river basin using multi-satellite observations. Water, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/w9040245"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"387","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2005.08.016","article-title":"Floodplain water storage in the Negro River basin estimated from microwave remote sensing of inundation area and water levels","volume":"99","author":"Frappart","year":"2005","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"044010","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-9326\/7\/4\/044010","article-title":"Surface freshwater storage and dynamics in the Amazon basin during the 2005 exceptional drought","volume":"7","author":"Frappart","year":"2012","journal-title":"Environ. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Frappart, F., Bourrel, L., Salazar, X.R., Baup, F., Baup, F., Darrozes, J., and Pombosa, R. (2015, January 26\u201331). Spatio-temporal dynamics of the floods in the Guayas watershed (Ecuatorian Pacific Coast) using ENVISAT ASAR images. Proceedings of the 2015 IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium (IGARSS), Milan, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/IGARSS.2015.7326322"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3530","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2011.08.015","article-title":"Characterisation of terrestrial water dynamics in the Congo Basin using GRACE and satellite radar altimetry","volume":"115","author":"Lee","year":"2011","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_26","first-page":"196","article-title":"Satellite-based estimates of surface water dynamics in the Congo River Basin","volume":"66","author":"Becker","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kitambo, B., Papa, F., Paris, A., Tshimanga, R., Frappart, F., Calmant, S., Elmi, O., Fleischmann, A., Becker, M., and Tourian, M. (2022). A long-term monthly surface water storage dataset for the Congo basin from 1992 to 2015. Earth Syst. Sci. Data Discuss., 1\u201339.","DOI":"10.5194\/essd-2022-376"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2019JD030711","DOI":"10.1029\/2019JD030711","article-title":"Satellite-derived global surface water extent and dynamics over the last 25 years (GIEMS-2)","volume":"125","author":"Prigent","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"639","DOI":"10.1038\/s41561-022-00966-7","article-title":"Mapping peat thickness and carbon stocks of the central Congo Basin using field data","volume":"15","author":"Crezee","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Runge, J. (2008). Large Rivers: Geomorphology and Management, Wiley Online Library."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.19182\/bft2021.350.a36288","article-title":"Current knowledge on the Cuvette Centrale peatland complex and future research directions","volume":"350","author":"Biddulph","year":"2021","journal-title":"Bois Forets Trop."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Dargie, G.C. (2015). Quantifying and Understanding the Tropical Peatlands of the Central Congo Basin. [Ph.D. Thesis, University of Leeds]."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Crezee, B.J. (2022). Spatial Distribution, Carbon Stocks and Diversity of Peat Swamp Forests in the Central Congo Basin. [Ph.D. Thesis, University of Leeds]."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1016\/j.catena.2015.12.016","article-title":"Ground surface microtopography and vegetation patterns in a tropical peat swamp forest","volume":"139","author":"Lampela","year":"2016","journal-title":"Catena"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2021MS002784","DOI":"10.1029\/2021MS002784","article-title":"Tropical peatland hydrology simulated with a global land surface model","volume":"14","author":"Apers","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Adv. Model. Earth Syst."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"324","DOI":"10.1016\/0034-4257(95)00140-9","article-title":"Understanding the radar backscattering from flooded and nonflooded Amazonian forests: Results from canopy backscatter modeling","volume":"54","author":"Wang","year":"1995","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"745","DOI":"10.1007\/s13157-015-0666-y","article-title":"Wetlands of the Lowland Amazon Basin: Extent, Vegetative Cover, and Dual-season Inundated Area as Mapped with JERS-1 Synthetic Aperture Radar","volume":"35","author":"Hess","year":"2015","journal-title":"Wetlands"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rosenqvist, J., Rosenqvist, A., Jensen, K., and McDonald, K. (2020). Mapping of maximum and minimum inundation extents in the amazon basin 2014-2017 with ALOS-2 PALSAR-2 scan SAR time-series data. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12081326"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1283","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160110092902","article-title":"Evaluation of JERS-1 SAR mosaics for hydrological applications in the Congo river basin","volume":"23","author":"Rosenqvist","year":"2002","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3307","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2007.901027","article-title":"ALOS PALSAR: A pathfinder mission for global-scale monitoring of the environment","volume":"45","author":"Rosenqvist","year":"2007","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-022-05389-3","article-title":"Hydroclimatic vulnerability of peat carbon in the central Congo Basin","volume":"612","author":"Garcin","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Motohka, T., Kankaku, Y., Suzuki, S., and Shimada, M. (2017, January 23\u201328). Status of the advanced land observing satellite-2 (ALOS-2) and its follow-on L-band SAR mission. Proceedings of the International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium (IGARSS), Fort Worth, TX, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/IGARSS.2017.8127482"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yuan, T., Lee, H., and Jung, H.C. (2015). Toward Estimating wetland water level changes based on hydrological sensitivity analysis of PALSAR backscattering coefficients over different vegetation fields. Remote Sens., 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs70303153"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Landuyt, L., Verhoest, N.E., and Van Coillie, F.M. (2020). Flood mapping in vegetated areas using an unsupervised clustering approach on sentinel-1 and-2 imagery. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12213611"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"150066","DOI":"10.1038\/sdata.2015.66","article-title":"The climate hazards infrared precipitation with stations - A new environmental record for monitoring extremes","volume":"2","author":"Funk","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sci. Data"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2115","DOI":"10.1002\/qj.3547","article-title":"Evaluation of remotely sensed rainfall products over Central Africa","volume":"145","author":"Camberlin","year":"2019","journal-title":"Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101168","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejrh.2022.101168","article-title":"Evaluating the performance of multiple satellite-based precipitation products in the Congo River Basin using the SWAT model","volume":"42","author":"Santos","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Hydrol. Reg. Stud."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fitts, C.R. (2012). Groundwater Science, Academic Press.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-384705-8.00001-7"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"252","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2005.10.027","article-title":"Preliminary results of ENVISAT RA-2-derived water levels validation over the Amazon basin","volume":"100","author":"Frappart","year":"2006","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1857","DOI":"10.5194\/hess-26-1857-2022","article-title":"A combined use of in situ and satellite-derived observations to characterize surface hydrology and its variability in the Congo River basin","volume":"26","author":"Kitambo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5844","DOI":"10.1002\/2017GL072874","article-title":"A high-accuracy map of global terrain elevations","volume":"44","author":"Yamazaki","year":"2017","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"202","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2008.2002881","article-title":"Improved sigma filter for speckle filtering of SAR imagery","volume":"47","author":"Lee","year":"2009","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7021","DOI":"10.1080\/01431161.2017.1371867","article-title":"Mapping spatio-temporal water level variations over the central congo river using palsar scansar and envisat altimetry data","volume":"38","author":"Kim","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2012.12.015","article-title":"Application of the topographic position index to heterogeneous landscapes","volume":"186","author":"Bourgeois","year":"2013","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_55","unstructured":"Botsch, R.E. (2023, June 09). Chapter 12. Significance and Measures of Association. APLS 301 Scopes and Methods of Political Science Course, USCA 2011. Available online: https:\/\/polisci.usca.edu\/apls301\/Text\/Chapter%2012.%20Significance%20and%20Measures%20of%20Association.htm."},{"key":"ref_56","unstructured":"Fu, L.L., Alsdorf, D., Morrow, R., Rodriguez, E., and Mognard, N. (2023, June 09). SWOT: The Surface Water and Ocean Topography Mission Wide-Swath Altimetric Measurement of Water Elevation on Earth. JPL Open Repository, V1: Pasadena, CA, USA, 2012. Available online: https:\/\/hdl.handle.net\/2014\/41996."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cazenave, A., Champollion, N., Benveniste, J., and Chen, J. (2016). Remote Sensing and Water Resources, Springer International Publishing.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-32449-4"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Medasani, S., and Reddy, G.U. (2018, January 29\u201331). Analysis and Evaluation of Speckle Filters by Using Polarimetric Synthetic Aperture Radar Data Through Local Statistics. Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Electronics, Communication and Aerospace Technology, ICECA 2018, Coimbatore, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICECA.2018.8474567"}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/15\/12\/3099\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T19:54:22Z","timestamp":1760126062000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/15\/12\/3099"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,13]]},"references-count":58,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,6]]}},"alternative-id":["rs15123099"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs15123099","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,13]]}}}