{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,5]],"date-time":"2026-03-05T18:16:40Z","timestamp":1772734600582,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":102,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,20]],"date-time":"2023-06-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1687219200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Wuxi University Starting Project","award":["2021r010"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2021r010"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This study investigated the actual evapotranspiration (AET) and potential evapotranspiration (PET) seasonality, trends, abrupt changes, and driving mechanisms with global sea surface temperature (SST) and atmospheric circulation patterns over Equatorial Africa (EQA) during 1980\u20132020. The spatiotemporal characteristics of mean ET were computed based on a 40-year average at annual and seasonal scales. The Mann-Kendall statistical test, the Sen slope test, and the Bayesian test were used to analyze trends and detect abrupt changes. The results showed that the mean annual PET (AET) for 1980\u20132020 was 110 (70) mm. Seasonal mean PET (AET) values were 112 (72) in summer, 110 (85) in autumn, 109 (84) in winter, and 110 (58) in spring. The MK test showed an increasing (decreasing) rate, and the Sen slope identified upward (downward) at a rate of 0.35 (0.05) mm yr\u221210. The PET and AET abrupt change points were observed to happen in 1995 and 2000. Both dry and wet regions showed observed weak (strong) correlation coefficient values of 0.3 (0.8) between PET\/AET and climate factors, but significant spatiotemporal differences existed. Generally, air temperature, soil moisture, and relative humidity best explain ET dynamics rather than precipitation and wind speed. The regional atmospheric circulation patterns are directly linked to ET but vary significantly in space and time. From a policy perspective, these findings may have implications for future water resource management.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs15123201","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,21]],"date-time":"2023-06-21T02:01:33Z","timestamp":1687312893000},"page":"3201","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["Temporal and Spatial Variations of Potential and Actual Evapotranspiration and the Driving Mechanism over Equatorial Africa Using Satellite and Reanalysis-Based Observation"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6636-9554","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Isaac Kwesi","family":"Nooni","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Atmospheric Science and Remote Sensing, Wuxi University, Wuxi 214105, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0342-7929","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Faustin Katchele","family":"Ogou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Atmospheric Physics, Department of Physics, University of Abomey-Calavi, Cotonou 01 BP 526, Benin"}]},{"given":"Jiao","family":"Lu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Atmospheric Science and Remote Sensing, Wuxi University, Wuxi 214105, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2698-6157","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Francis Mawuli","family":"Nakoty","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Electronic and Information Engineering, Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, Nanjing 210044, China"}]},{"given":"Abdoul Aziz Saidou","family":"Chaibou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"D\u00e9partement de Physique, Facult\u00e9 des Sciences et Techniques, Universit\u00e9 Abdou Moumouni, Niamey BP 10662, Niger"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9425-0398","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Birhanu Asmerom","family":"Habtemicheal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physics, Wollo University, Dessie P.O. Box 1145, Ethiopia"}]},{"given":"Linda","family":"Sarpong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Environment, Hohai University, Nanjing 210098, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8959-3428","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zhongfang","family":"Jin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Electronic and Information Engineering, Wuxi University, Wuxi 214105, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2618","DOI":"10.1002\/2016WR020175","article-title":"The future of evapotranspiration: Global requirements for ecosystem functioning, carbon and climate feedbacks, agricultural management, and water resources","volume":"53","author":"Fisher","year":"2017","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1068","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1128845","article-title":"Global hydrological cycles and world water resources","volume":"313","author":"Oki","year":"2006","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.1038\/nature11983","article-title":"Terrestrial water fluxes dominated by transpiration","volume":"496","author":"Jasechko","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1016\/j.earscirev.2010.02.004","article-title":"Investigating soil moisture\u2013climate interactions in a changing climate: A review","volume":"99","author":"Seneviratne","year":"2010","journal-title":"Earth-Sci. Rev."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Allen, R.G., Pereira, L.S., Raes, D., and Smith, M. (1998). Crop Evapotranspiration. Guidelines for Computing Crop Water Requirements, FAO Irrigation and Drainage."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L02404","DOI":"10.1029\/2008GL036584","article-title":"A regional perspective on trends in continental evaporation","volume":"36","author":"Teuling","year":"2009","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"L21401","article-title":"Land-atmosphere coupling explains the link between pan evaporation and actual evapotranspiration trends in a changing climate","volume":"37","author":"Teuling","year":"2010","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1007\/s10064-002-0170-5","article-title":"Estimating actual areal evapotranspiration from potential evapotranspiration using physical models based on complementary relationships and meteorological data","volume":"62","author":"Haque","year":"2003","journal-title":"Bull. Eng. Geol. Environ."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ghiat, I., Mackey, H.R., and Al-Ansari, T. (2021). A Review of Evapotranspiration Measurement Models, Techniques and Methods for Open and Closed Agricultural Field Applications. Water, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/w13182523"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1540","DOI":"10.1175\/JHM-D-14-0189.1","article-title":"Comparing Evapotranspiration from Eddy Covariance Measurements, Water Budgets, Remote Sensing, and Land Surface Models over Canada","volume":"16","author":"Wang","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Hydrometeorol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"RG2005","DOI":"10.1029\/2011RG000373","article-title":"A review of global terrestrial evapotranspiration: Observation, modeling, climatology, and climatic variability","volume":"50","author":"Wang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Rev. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3801","DOI":"10.3390\/s90503801","article-title":"A Review of Current Methodologies for Regional Evapotranspiration Estimation from Remotely Sensed Data","volume":"9","author":"Li","year":"2009","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"834","DOI":"10.1002\/wat2.1168","article-title":"A review of remote sensing based actual evapotranspiration estimation","volume":"3","author":"Zhang","year":"2016","journal-title":"WIREs Water"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1903","DOI":"10.5194\/gmd-10-1903-2017","article-title":"GLEAM v3: Satellite-based land evaporation and root-zone soil moisture","volume":"10","author":"Martens","year":"2017","journal-title":"Geosci. Model Dev."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"453","DOI":"10.5194\/hess-15-453-2011","article-title":"Global land-surface evaporation estimated from satellite-based observations","volume":"15","author":"Miralles","year":"2011","journal-title":"Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8495","DOI":"10.1002\/2013WR014240","article-title":"Mapping evapotranspiration trends using MODIS and SEBAL model in a data scarce and heterogeneous landscape in Eastern Africa","volume":"49","author":"Kiptala","year":"2013","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"519","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2007.04.015","article-title":"Development of a global evapotranspiration algorithm based on MODIS and global meteorology data","volume":"111","author":"Mu","year":"2007","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1781","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2011.02.019","article-title":"Improvements to a MODIS global terrestrial evapotranspiration algorithm","volume":"115","author":"Mu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Luo, Y., Gao, P., and Mu, X. (2021). Influence of Meteorological Factors on the Potential Evapotranspiration in Yanhe River Basin, China. Water, 13.","DOI":"10.22541\/au.161606525.58625543\/v1"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bozorg-Haddad, O., and Zolghadr-Asli, B. (2022). Computational Intelligence for Water and Environmental Sciences, Springer Nature.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-19-2519-1"},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"132","article-title":"Spatio-temporal variability of terrestrial evapotranspiration in china from 1980 to 2011 based on gleam data","volume":"31","author":"Yang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Trans. Chin. Soc. Agric. Eng."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nooni, I.K., Wang, G., Hagan, D.F.T., Lu, J., Ullah, W., and Li, S. (2019). Evapotranspiration and its Components in the Nile River Basin Based on Long-Term Satellite Assimilation Product. Water, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/w11071400"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3691","DOI":"10.5194\/hess-26-3691-2022","article-title":"Attribution of global evapotranspiration trends based on the Budyko framework","volume":"26","author":"Shijie","year":"2022","journal-title":"Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5879","DOI":"10.5194\/essd-13-5879-2021","article-title":"A harmonized global land evaporation dataset from model-based products covering 1980\u20132017","volume":"13","author":"Lu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Earth Syst. Sci. Data"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1493","DOI":"10.1007\/s00704-019-02913-w","article-title":"Changes of actual evapotranspiration and its components in the Yangtze River valley during 1980\u20132014 from satellite assimilation product","volume":"138","author":"Lu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Theor. Appl. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, G., Pan, J., Shen, C., Shijie, L., Lu, J., Lou, D., and Hagan, D. (2018). Evaluation of Evapotranspiration Estimates in the Yellow River Basin against the Water Balance Method. Water, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/w10121884"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126037","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2021.126037","article-title":"Long-term changes in evapotranspiration over China and attribution to climatic drivers during 1980\u20132010","volume":"595","author":"Shijie","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shijie, L., Wang, G., Sun, S., Chen, H., Peng, B., Zhou, S., Huang, Y., Wang, J., and Deng, P. (2018). Assessment of Multi-Source Evapotranspiration Products over China Using Eddy Covariance Observations. Remote Sens., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10111692"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105096","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosres.2020.105096","article-title":"Changes in reference evapotranspiration and its driving factors in peninsular Malaysia","volume":"246","author":"Pour","year":"2020","journal-title":"Atmos. Res."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1016\/j.catena.2018.08.028","article-title":"Spatio-temporal changes of the climatic water balance in Romania as a response to precipitation and reference evapotranspiration trends during 1961\u20132013","volume":"172","author":"Piticar","year":"2019","journal-title":"CATENA"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157823","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2022.157823","article-title":"Meteorological driving forces of reference evapotranspiration and their trends in California","volume":"849","author":"Ahmadi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106043","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agwat.2020.106043","article-title":"Similarity and difference of potential evapotranspiration and reference crop evapotranspiration\u2014A review","volume":"232","author":"Xiang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Agric. Water Manag."},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"134","article-title":"\u00e9vapotranspiration r\u00e9elle et potentielle signification climatique","volume":"62","author":"Bouchet","year":"1963","journal-title":"Int. Assoc. Hydrol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, Y., Zhang, S., and Wang, Y. (2022). Analysis of the Spatial and Temporal Distribution of Potential Evapotranspiration in Akmola Oblast, Kazakhstan, and the Driving Factors. Remote Sens., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14215311"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"677","DOI":"10.1007\/s00704-022-04184-4","article-title":"Spatial distribution of the trends in potential evapotranspiration and its influencing climatic factors in Iraq","volume":"150","author":"Shahid","year":"2022","journal-title":"Theor. Appl. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"989","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-022-28652-7","article-title":"Atmospheric dryness reduces photosynthesis along a large range of soil water deficits","volume":"13","author":"Fu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1038\/s41612-023-00334-1","article-title":"Soil moisture revamps the temperature extremes in a warming climate over India","volume":"6","author":"Ganeshi","year":"2023","journal-title":"NPJ Clim. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"G00J07","DOI":"10.1029\/2010JG001566","article-title":"Global patterns of land-atmosphere fluxes of carbon dioxide, latent heat, and sensible heat derived from eddy covariance, satellite, and meteorological observations","volume":"116","author":"Jung","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Biogeosc."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"C10025","DOI":"10.1029\/2010JC006937","article-title":"A global relationship between the ocean water cycle and near-surface salinity","volume":"116","author":"Yu","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Ocean."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"025007","DOI":"10.1088\/2515-7620\/acb31c","article-title":"The relationship between sea surface temperature anomalies, wind and translation speed and North Atlantic tropical cyclone rainfall over ocean and land","volume":"5","author":"Hallam","year":"2023","journal-title":"Environ. Res. Commun."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gnitou, G.T., Ma, T., Tan, G., Ayugi, B., Nooni, I.K., Alabdulkarim, A., and Tian, Y. (2019). Evaluation of the Rossby Centre Regional Climate Model Rainfall Simulations over West Africa Using Large-Scale Spatial and Temporal Statistical Metrics. Atmosphere, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/atmos10120802"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ajibola, F.O., Zhou, B., Tchalim Gnitou, G., and Onyejuruwa, A. (2020). Evaluation of the Performance of CMIP6 HighResMIP on West African Precipitation. Atmosphere, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/atmos11101053"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105694","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosres.2021.105694","article-title":"Added value in dynamically downscaling seasonal mean temperature simulations over West Africa","volume":"260","author":"Gnitou","year":"2021","journal-title":"Atmos. Res."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ayugi, B., Dike, V., Nadoya, H.N., Babaousmail, H., Mumo, R., and Ongoma, V. (2021). Future Changes in Precipitation Extremes over East Africa Based on CMIP6 Models. Water, 13.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202101.0112.v1"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104226","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jafrearsci.2021.104226","article-title":"Evaluation and projection of mean surface temperature using CMIP6 models over East Africa","volume":"181","author":"Ayugi","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Afr. Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104705","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosres.2019.104705","article-title":"Historical evaluations and simulations of precipitation over East Africa from Rossby centre regional climate model","volume":"232","author":"Ayugi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Atmos. Res."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2351","DOI":"10.1007\/s00704-018-2745-5","article-title":"Daily characteristics of Central African rainfall in the REMO model","volume":"137","author":"Tamoffo","year":"2019","journal-title":"Theor. Appl. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106426","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosres.2022.106426","article-title":"The ERA5\u2032s diurnal cycle of low-level clouds over Western Central Africa during June\u2013September: Dynamic and thermodynamic processes","volume":"280","author":"Dommo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Atmos. Res."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6311","DOI":"10.1002\/joc.7591","article-title":"Rainfall in uncoupled and coupled versions of the Met Office Unified Model over Central Africa: Investigation of processes during the September\u2013November rainy season","volume":"42","author":"Taguela","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2959","DOI":"10.5194\/essd-12-2959-2020","article-title":"An update of IPCC climate reference regions for subcontinental analysis of climate model data: Definition and aggregated datasets","volume":"12","author":"Iturbide","year":"2020","journal-title":"Earth Syst. Sci. Data"},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"Ateba Boyomo, H., Emmanuel, O., William, M., and Asngar, T. (2023). Does climate change influence conflicts? Evidence for the Cameroonian regions. GeoJournal."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1375","DOI":"10.1002\/joc.5252","article-title":"Projected changes in mean rainfall and temperature over East Africa based on CMIP5 models","volume":"38","author":"Ongoma","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1083","DOI":"10.1007\/s00382-010-0785-3","article-title":"Regional climate modelling of the 2006 West African monsoon: Sensitivity to convection and planetary boundary layer parameterisation using WRF","volume":"36","author":"Flaounas","year":"2011","journal-title":"Clim. Dyn."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6441","DOI":"10.1007\/s00382-018-4522-7","article-title":"West African Monsoon: Current state and future projections in a high-resolution AGCM","volume":"52","author":"Raj","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clim. Dyn."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"481","DOI":"10.1002\/joc.3702","article-title":"Analysis of the West African Monsoon system in the regional climate model COSMO-CLM","volume":"34","author":"Kothe","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1002\/asl.335","article-title":"Progress in understanding of weather systems in West Africa","volume":"12","author":"Lafore","year":"2011","journal-title":"Atmos. Sci. Lett."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1002\/asl.287","article-title":"Equatorial upper-ocean dynamics and their interaction with the West African monsoon","volume":"12","author":"Brandt","year":"2011","journal-title":"Atmos. Sci. Lett."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"967","DOI":"10.5194\/hess-15-967-2011","article-title":"Magnitude and variability of land evaporation and its components at the global scale","volume":"15","author":"Miralles","year":"2011","journal-title":"Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122","DOI":"10.1038\/nclimate2068","article-title":"El Ni\u00f1o\u2013La Ni\u00f1a cycle and recent trends in continental evaporation","volume":"4","author":"Miralles","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nat. Clim. Change"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0493(1972)100<0081:OTAOSH>2.3.CO;2","article-title":"On the assessment of surface heat flux and evapotranspiration using large scale parameters","volume":"100","author":"Priestley","year":"1972","journal-title":"Mon. Weather Rev."},{"key":"ref_61","unstructured":"European Center for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) (2023, April 20). Home Page. Available online: http:\/\/apps.ecmwf.int\/datasets\/data\/interim-full-daily\/levtype=sfc\/."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1999","DOI":"10.1002\/qj.3803","article-title":"The ERA5 global reanalysis","volume":"146","author":"Hersbach","year":"2020","journal-title":"Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4186","DOI":"10.1002\/qj.4174","article-title":"The ERA5 global reanalysis: Preliminary extension to 1950","volume":"147","author":"Bell","year":"2021","journal-title":"Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3152","DOI":"10.1002\/qj.4351","article-title":"An evaluation of ERA5 precipitation for climate monitoring","volume":"148","author":"Lavers","year":"2022","journal-title":"Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5807","DOI":"10.1002\/joc.7563","article-title":"Links between precipitation, circulation weather types and orography in central Italy","volume":"42","author":"Silvestri","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4314","DOI":"10.1002\/joc.5670","article-title":"Assessing reliability of precipitation data over the Mekong River Basin: A comparison of ground-based, satellite, and reanalysis datasets","volume":"38","author":"Chen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2625","DOI":"10.1002\/joc.6980","article-title":"Evaluation of ERA5 precipitation over the eastern periphery of the Tibetan plateau from the perspective of regional rainfall events","volume":"41","author":"Hu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1002\/joc.7697","article-title":"Assessing improvement in the fifth-generation ECMWF atmospheric reanalysis precipitation over East Africa","volume":"43","author":"Assamnew","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_69","unstructured":"CRU (2023, March 10). The Climatic Research Unit (CRU) Precipitation and air Temperature Hompage. Available online: https:\/\/crudata.uea.ac.uk\/cru\/data\/hrg\/."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1038\/s41597-020-0453-3","article-title":"Version 4 of the CRU TS monthly high-resolution gridded multivariate climate dataset","volume":"7","author":"Harris","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Data"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2721","DOI":"10.1007\/s00477-018-1587-0","article-title":"Trends and variability in African long-term precipitation","volume":"32","author":"Onyutha","year":"2018","journal-title":"Stoch. Environ. Res. Risk Assess."},{"key":"ref_72","unstructured":"GHRSST (2023, April 20). Global Data Assembly Center (GDAC) at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) Physical Oceanography Distributed Active Archive Center (PO.DAAC) Homepage, Available online: http:\/\/ghrsst.jpl.nasa.gov\/GHRSST_product_table.html."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"623","DOI":"10.1002\/joc.3711","article-title":"Updated high-resolution grids of monthly climatic observations\u2014The CRU TS3.10 Dataset","volume":"34","author":"Harris","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_74","unstructured":"Harris, I.C., Jones, P.D., and Osbon, T. (2023, March 10). CRU TS4.04: Climate Research Unit (CRU) Time-Series (TS) Version 4.04 of Highresolution Gridded Data of Monthly-by-Monthly Variation in Climate (January 1901\u2013December 2019). Available online: https:\/\/catalogue.ceda.ac.uk\/uuid\/89e1e34ec3554dc."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.2307\/1907187","article-title":"Nonparametric Tests Against Trend","volume":"13","author":"Mann","year":"1945","journal-title":"Econometrica"},{"key":"ref_76","first-page":"245","article-title":"Rank correlation methods. Griffin, London","volume":"13","author":"Kendall","year":"1975","journal-title":"J. Econom."},{"key":"ref_77","first-page":"1397","article-title":"A rank invariant method of linear and polynomial regression analysis","volume":"53","author":"Theil","year":"1950","journal-title":"Proc. Ned. Akad. Wet."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1379","DOI":"10.1080\/01621459.1968.10480934","article-title":"Estimates of the Regression Coefficient Based on Kendall\u2019s Tau","volume":"63","author":"Sen","year":"1968","journal-title":"J. Am. Stat. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/s43586-020-00001-2","article-title":"Bayesian statistics and modelling","volume":"1","author":"Depaoli","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Methods Prim."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105792","DOI":"10.1016\/j.knosys.2020.105792","article-title":"An online Bayesian approach to change-point detection for categorical data","volume":"196","author":"Fan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Knowl.-Based Syst."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14052","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1207509109","article-title":"Climate-driven regime shifts in Arctic marine benthos","volume":"109","author":"Kortsch","year":"2012","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e01860","DOI":"10.1002\/ecs2.1860","article-title":"Defining ecosystem thresholds for human activities and environmental pressures in the California Current","volume":"8","author":"Samhouri","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ecosphere"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20181","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-56464-1","article-title":"Evaporation abrupt changes in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau during the last half-century","volume":"9","author":"Yao","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6391","DOI":"10.1002\/2014JD022874","article-title":"Temporal and spatial characteristics of pan evaporation trends and their attribution to meteorological drivers in the Three-River Source Region, China","volume":"120","author":"Wang","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"D12110","DOI":"10.1029\/2006JD008161","article-title":"Trends in pan evaporation and reference and actual evapotranspiration across the Tibetan Plateau","volume":"112","author":"Zhang","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22089","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-78994-9","article-title":"Spatial variations and long-term trends of potential evaporation in Canada","volume":"10","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3561","DOI":"10.5194\/hess-17-3561-2013","article-title":"Spatial and seasonal variations in evapotranspiration over Canada\u2019s landmass","volume":"17","author":"Wang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1073","DOI":"10.1007\/s00704-018-2543-0","article-title":"Spatiotemporal changes in aridity index and reference evapotranspiration over semi-arid and humid regions of Iran: Trend, cause, and sensitivity analyses","volume":"136","author":"Nouri","year":"2019","journal-title":"Theor. Appl. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1007\/s00704-019-02816-w","article-title":"Detecting linear trend of reference evapotranspiration in irrigated farming areas in Brazil\u2019s semiarid region","volume":"138","author":"Silva","year":"2019","journal-title":"Theor. Appl. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"639","DOI":"10.1007\/s00703-018-0596-3","article-title":"Analysis of reference evapotranspiration (ET0) trends under climate change in Bangladesh using observed and CMIP5 data sets","volume":"131","author":"Rahman","year":"2019","journal-title":"Meteorol. Atmos. Phys."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L06402","DOI":"10.1029\/2010GL046230","article-title":"Evaluation of global observations-based evapotranspiration datasets and IPCC AR4 simulations","volume":"38","author":"Mueller","year":"2011","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_92","first-page":"L13503","article-title":"Trends in pan evaporation and actual evapotranspiration across the conterminous US: Paradoxical or complementary?","volume":"316","author":"Hobbins","year":"2004","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L15401","DOI":"10.1029\/2005GL023549","article-title":"Observational evidence of the complementary relationship in regional evaporation lends strong support for Bouchet\u2019s hypothesis","volume":"32","author":"Ramirez","year":"2005","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2665","DOI":"10.1029\/2000GL012851","article-title":"Evaporation changes over the contiguous United States and the former USSR: A reassessment","volume":"28","author":"Golubev","year":"2001","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L17403","DOI":"10.1029\/2007GL031166","article-title":"On the attribution of changing pan evaporation","volume":"34","author":"Roderick","year":"2007","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11164","DOI":"10.1029\/2018GL079332","article-title":"Revisiting Pan Evaporation Trends in Australia a Decade on","volume":"45","author":"Stephens","year":"2018","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.3390\/s8010070","article-title":"Assessment of Evapotranspiration and Soil Moisture Content Across Different Scales of Observation","volume":"8","author":"Verstraeten","year":"2008","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1118","DOI":"10.1002\/qj.3481","article-title":"Radiation, surface temperature and evaporation over wet surfaces","volume":"145","author":"Yang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1859","DOI":"10.1002\/met.1859","article-title":"Variability in meteorological parameters and their impact on evapotranspiration in a humid zone of Pakistan","volume":"27","author":"Adnan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Meteorol. Appl."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2005","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1081056","article-title":"Abrupt climate change","volume":"299","author":"Alley","year":"2003","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1038\/34346","article-title":"Timing of abrupt climate change at the end of the Younger Dryas interval from thermally fractionated gases in polar ice","volume":"391","author":"Severinghaus","year":"1998","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1063\/PT.3.5198","article-title":"Climate tipping points: A personal view","volume":"76","author":"McIntyre","year":"2023","journal-title":"Phys. Today"}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/15\/12\/3201\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T19:57:21Z","timestamp":1760126241000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/15\/12\/3201"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,20]]},"references-count":102,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,6]]}},"alternative-id":["rs15123201"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs15123201","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,20]]}}}