{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,17]],"date-time":"2026-04-17T16:49:08Z","timestamp":1776444548427,"version":"3.51.2"},"reference-count":27,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"13","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,6]],"date-time":"2023-07-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1688601600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"China Academy of Railway Sciences Group Co., Ltd","award":["2021YJ257"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2021YJ257"]}]},{"name":"China Academy of Railway Sciences Group Co., Ltd","award":["42274189"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42274189"]}]},{"name":"China Academy of Railway Sciences Group Co., Ltd","award":["42074155"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42074155"]}]},{"name":"China Academy of Railway Sciences Group Co., Ltd","award":["42274193"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42274193"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2021YJ257"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2021YJ257"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["42274189"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42274189"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["42074155"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42074155"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["42274193"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42274193"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Systematic assessment of ballast fouling and mechanized cleaning efficiency through ground penetrating radar (GPR) is vital to ensure track stability and safe train transportation. Nevertheless, conventional methods of ballast fouling inspection and evaluation impede construction progress and escalate the cost of maintenance. This paper proposes a novel method using random irregular polygons and collision detection algorithms to model the ballast layer and simulated using the finite-difference time-domain (FDTD) algorithm. Hilbert transform energy, S-transform, and energy integration curve are employed to identify ballast fouling and cleaning efficiency. The highly fouled ballast exhibits concentrated Hilbert transform energy, increased energy attenuation rate in S-transform with depth in the 1.0-3.0 GHz, along with a stronger energy integration curve. Clean or post-cleaning ballast shows opposite results. Experiments on a passenger trunk line in southern China validated the method\u2019s accuracy after mechanized ballast cleaning. This approach guides GPR-based detection and supports railway maintenance. Future studies will consider heterogeneous properties and the three-dimensional structure of the ballast layer.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs15133437","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,7]],"date-time":"2023-07-07T02:28:46Z","timestamp":1688696926000},"page":"3437","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":16,"title":["Identification of Ballast Fouling Status and Mechanized Cleaning Efficiency Using FDTD Method"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-6115-2816","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bo","family":"Li","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Geophysics and Information Technology, China University of Geosciences, Beijing 100083, China"}]},{"given":"Zhan","family":"Peng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Infrastructure Inspection Research Institute, China Academy of Railway Sciences Corporation Limited, Beijing 100081, China"}]},{"given":"Shilei","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Infrastructure Inspection Research Institute, China Academy of Railway Sciences Corporation Limited, Beijing 100081, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7274-2976","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Linyan","family":"Guo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Geophysics and Information Technology, China University of Geosciences, Beijing 100083, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bianchini Ciampoli, L., Calvi, A., and D\u2019Amico, F. 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