{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,14]],"date-time":"2026-02-14T10:26:16Z","timestamp":1771064776155,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":39,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"14","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,15]],"date-time":"2023-07-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1689379200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"the National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["42074039"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42074039"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Location information is the core data in IoT applications, which is the essential foundation for scene interpretation and interconnection of everything, and thus high-precision positioning is becoming an immediate need. However, the non-line-of-sight (NLOS) effect of indoor complex environment on UWB signal occlusion has been a major factor limiting the improvement in ultra-wideband (UWB) positioning accuracy, and the optimization of NLOS error has not yet been studied in a targeted manner. To this end, this paper deeply analyzes indoor scenes, divides NLOS into two forms of spatial occlusion and human occlusion, and proposes a particle filtering algorithm based on LOS\/NLOS mapping and NLOS error optimization. This algorithm is targeted to optimize the influence of two different forms of NLOS, using spatial a priori information to accurately judge the LOS\/NLOS situation of the anchor, optimizing the NLOS anchor ranging using IMU to project the virtual position, judging whether the LOS anchor is affected by human occlusion, and correcting the affected LOS anchor using the established human occlusion error model. Through experimental verification, the algorithm can effectively suppress two different NLOS errors of spatial structure and human occlusion and can achieve continuous and reliable high-precision positioning and tracking in complex indoor environments.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs15143555","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,17]],"date-time":"2023-07-17T00:56:47Z","timestamp":1689555407000},"page":"3555","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":20,"title":["Research on High Precision Positioning Method for Pedestrians in Indoor Complex Environments Based on UWB\/IMU"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7450-5317","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hao","family":"Zhang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Instrument Science and Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing 210096, China"}]},{"given":"Qing","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Instrument Science and Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing 210096, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7791-6429","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zehui","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Instrument Science and Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing 210096, China"}]},{"given":"Jing","family":"Mi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Instrument Science and Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing 210096, China"}]},{"given":"Kai","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Instrument Science and Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing 210096, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"566","DOI":"10.1109\/COMST.2019.2951036","article-title":"A survey on fusion-based indoor positioning","volume":"22","author":"Guo","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Surv. Tutor."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, D., Lu, Y., Zhang, L., and Jiang, G. (2019). Intelligent positioning for a commercial mobile platform in seamless indoor\/outdoor scenes based on multi-sensor fusion. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19071696"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3133","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2020.2965115","article-title":"Kalman-filter-based integration of IMU and UWB for high-accuracy indoor positioning and navigation","volume":"7","author":"Feng","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Goldstein (2020, April 28). Global Indoor Positioning and Indoor Navigation (IPIN) Market Outlook, 2024. Available online: https:\/\/www.goldsteinresearch.com\/report\/global-indoor-positioning-and-indoor-navigation-ipin-market-outlook-2024-global-opportunity-and-demand-analysis-market-forecast-2016-2024."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Chen, R., and Chen, L. (2021). Urban Informatics, Springer."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, Z., Wang, R., Gao, J., and Wang, J. (2017). An approach to improve the positioning performance of GPS\/INS\/UWB integrated system with two-step filter. Remote Sens., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10010019"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, F., Wang, J., Zhang, J., and Han, H. (2019). An indoor localization method for pedestrians base on combined UWB\/PDR\/Floor map. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19112578"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1255","DOI":"10.1109\/TRO.2017.2705103","article-title":"Orb-slam2: An open-source slam system for monocular, stereo, and rgb-d cameras","volume":"33","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Robot."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3733","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2019.2894714","article-title":"A low-cost INS and UWB fusion pedestrian tracking system","volume":"19","author":"Tian","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2106","DOI":"10.1109\/TIM.2017.2681398","article-title":"Comparing ubisense, bespoon, and decawave uwb location systems: Indoor performance analysis","volume":"66","author":"Ruiz","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"9304","article-title":"UWB system for indoor positioning and tracking with arbitrary target orientation, optimal anchor location, and adaptive NLOS mitigation","volume":"69","author":"Chen","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Djaja-Josko, V., and Kolakowski, M. (2017, January 21\u201322). A new map based method for NLOS mitigation in the UWB indoor localization system. Proceedings of the 2017 25th Telecommunication Forum (TELFOR), Belgrade, Serbia.","DOI":"10.1109\/TELFOR.2017.8249314"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ferreira, A.G., Fernandes, D., Catarino, A.P., and Monteiro, J.L. (2017). Performance analysis of ToA-based positioning algorithms for static and dynamic targets with low ranging measurements. Sensors, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/s17081915"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Garc\u00eda, E., Poudereux, P., Hern\u00e1ndez, \u00c1., Ure\u00f1a, J., and Gualda, D. (2015, January 17\u201319). Arobust uwb indoor positioning system for highly complex environments. Proceedings of the 2015 IEEE International Conference on Industrial Technology (ICIT), Seville, Spain.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICIT.2015.7125601"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4311","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2018.2818158","article-title":"NLOS mitigation for UWB localization based on sparse pseudo-input Gaussian process","volume":"18","author":"Yang","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"646","DOI":"10.1109\/TIM.2018.2853878","article-title":"A Robust Algorithm for Classification and Rejection of NLOS Signals in Narrowband Ultrasonic Localization Systems","volume":"68","author":"Haigh","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kristensen, J.B., Ginard, M.M., Jensen, O.K., and Shen, M. (2019, January 19\u201322). Non-Line-of-Sight Identification for UWB Indoor Positioning Systems using Support Vector Machines. Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE MTT-S International Wireless Symposium (IWS), Guangzhou, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/IEEE-IWS.2019.8804072"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1046","DOI":"10.1109\/TVT.2008.926071","article-title":"Measurement and Modeling of Ultrawideband TOA-Based Ranging in Indoor Multipath Environments","volume":"58","author":"Alsindi","year":"2008","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Park, J., Nam, S., Choi, H., Ko, Y., and Ko, Y.-B. (2020). Improving deep learning-based UWB LOS\/NLOS identification with transfer learning: An empirical approach. Electronics, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics9101714"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"96347","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2020.2995641","article-title":"A Novel Mobile Target Localization Approach for Complicate Underground Environment in Mixed LOS\/NLOS Scenarios","volume":"8","author":"Cao","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, X., Wang, Y., and Khoshelham, K. (2018). A Robust and Adaptive Complementary Kalman Filter Based on Mahalanobis Distance for Ultra-Wideband\/Inertial Measurement Unit Fusion Positioning. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18103435"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33686","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2019.2904201","article-title":"Empirical based ranging error mitigation in IR-UWB: A fuzzy approach","volume":"7","author":"Meghani","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3116","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2017.2689802","article-title":"Performance Enhancement of MEMS-Based INS\/UWB Integration for Indoor Navigation Applications","volume":"17","author":"Fan","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, F., Li, X., Wang, J., and Zhang, J. (2019). An Adaptive UWB\/MEMS-IMU Complementary Kalman Filter for Indoor Location in NLOS Environment. Remote Sens., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11222628"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Geiger, B. (2009, January 18\u201323). Ranging in the IEEE 802.15. 4a standard using energy detectors. Proceedings of the IEEE EUROCON 2009, St. Petersburg, Russia.","DOI":"10.1109\/EURCON.2009.5167915"},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Yu, C., Lan, H., Liu, Z., El-Sheimy, N., and Yu, F. (2016). China Satellite Navigation Conference (CSNC) 2016 Proceedings: Volume I, Springer."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6336","DOI":"10.1109\/TIM.2020.2967114","article-title":"Adapted error map based mobile robot UWB indoor positioning","volume":"69","author":"Zhu","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18166","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2021.3082579","article-title":"A high-accuracy indoor localization system and applications based on tightly coupled UWB\/INS\/Floor map integration","volume":"21","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lou, P., Zhao, Q., Zhang, X., Li, D., and Hu, J. (2022). Indoor Positioning System with UWB Based on a Digital Twin. Sensors, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/s22165936"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kili, Y., Ali, A.J., Meijerink, A., Bentum, M.J., and Scanlon, W.G. (2012, January 15\u201316). The effect of human-body shadowing on indoor UWB TOA-based ranging systems. Proceedings of the 2012 9th Workshop on Positioning, Navigation and Communication, Dresden, Germany.","DOI":"10.1109\/WPNC.2012.6268751"},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Geng, Y., Wan, Y., He, J., and Pahlavan, K. (2013, January 8\u201311). An Empirical Channel Model for the Effect of Human Body on Ray Tracing. Proceedings of the 2013 IEEE 24th Annual International Symposium on Personal, Indoor, and Mobile Radio Communications (PIMRC), London, UK."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Geng, Y., He, J., Deng, H., and Pahlavan, K. (2013, January 24\u201327). Modeling the effect of human body on TOA ranging for indoor human tracking with wrist mounted sensor. Proceedings of the 2013 16th International Symposium on Wireless Personal Multimedia Communications (WPMC), Atlantic City, NJ, USA."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1119","DOI":"10.1109\/LAWP.2019.2910378","article-title":"FDTD and Empirical Exploration of Human Body and UWB Radiation Interaction on TOF Ranging","volume":"18","author":"Otim","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Antennas Wirel. Propag. Lett."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11449","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2019.2935634","article-title":"Impact of Body Wearable Sensor Positions on UWB Ranging","volume":"19","author":"Otim","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"178886","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2020.3027669","article-title":"Towards Sub-Meter Level UWB Indoor Localization Using Body Wearable Sensors","volume":"8","author":"Otim","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11203","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2021.3061468","article-title":"A Novel NLOS Error Compensation Method Based IMU for UWB Indoor Positioning System","volume":"21","author":"Yang","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4028","DOI":"10.1109\/TIM.2018.2884605","article-title":"Human body shadowing effect on UWB-based ranging system for pedestrian tracking","volume":"68","author":"Tian","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, H., Wang, Q., Yan, C., Xu, J., and Zhang, B. (2022). Research on UWB Indoor Positioning Algorithm under the Influence of Human Occlusion and Spatial NLOS. Remote Sens., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14246338"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Han, H., Wang, J., Liu, F., Zhang, J., Yang, D., and Li, B. (2019). An Emergency Seamless Positioning Technique Based on ad hoc UWB Networking Using Robust EKF. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19143135"}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/15\/14\/3555\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T20:12:36Z","timestamp":1760127156000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/15\/14\/3555"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,15]]},"references-count":39,"journal-issue":{"issue":"14","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,7]]}},"alternative-id":["rs15143555"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs15143555","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,15]]}}}