{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T02:21:38Z","timestamp":1760149298473,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":55,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"14","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,21]],"date-time":"2023-07-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1689897600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["U2242201","42075077","2021JC0009","2023JJ30629","FY-APP-2022.0605"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["U2242201","42075077","2021JC0009","2023JJ30629","FY-APP-2022.0605"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Hunan Provincial Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["U2242201","42075077","2021JC0009","2023JJ30629","FY-APP-2022.0605"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["U2242201","42075077","2021JC0009","2023JJ30629","FY-APP-2022.0605"]}]},{"name":"Fengyun Application Pioneering Project","award":["U2242201","42075077","2021JC0009","2023JJ30629","FY-APP-2022.0605"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["U2242201","42075077","2021JC0009","2023JJ30629","FY-APP-2022.0605"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Wind gusts are sudden, brief increases in wind speed that have important implications for wind power generation, building design, aviation and marine safety. However, wind gusts in the Plateau and coastal plain are very different. In this paper, the gust characteristics are explored and compared at two sites in the same latitude\u2014Xining, a city in the eastern Tibetan Plateau, and Qingdao, a city in the coast in China\u2014using Doppler lidar data. The results indicate that the wind gusts in Xining are more intense and occur at a higher height than those in Qingdao. Though mean winds and turbulence significantly influence gusts, the turbulence intensity is responsible for the differences in gust, and high turbulence in the eastern part of the Tibetan Plateau is inferred. These results provide observational evidence for wind gusts over the complex terrain of the Tibetan Plateau and are useful for studying their impact on important aspects, such as flight safety.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs15143655","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,24]],"date-time":"2023-07-24T01:12:28Z","timestamp":1690161148000},"page":"3655","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Comparison of Spring Wind Gusts in the Eastern Part of the Tibetan Plateau and along the Coast: The Role of Turbulence"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7180-0641","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xingxu","family":"Zhou","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Meteorology and Oceanography, National University of Defense Technology, Changsha 410073, China"},{"name":"High Impact Weather Key Laboratory of CMA, Changsha 410073, China"}]},{"given":"Chao","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Meteorology and Oceanography, National University of Defense Technology, Changsha 410073, China"},{"name":"High Impact Weather Key Laboratory of CMA, Changsha 410073, China"}]},{"given":"Yunying","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Meteorology and Oceanography, National University of Defense Technology, Changsha 410073, China"},{"name":"High Impact Weather Key Laboratory of CMA, Changsha 410073, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9201-9088","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zhiwei","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unit No. 92192 of Chinese People\u2019s Liberation Army, Ningbo 315000, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"717","DOI":"10.1175\/2007JAMC1689.1","article-title":"Fatalities Associated with Nonconvective High-Wind Events in the United States","volume":"47","author":"Black","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteorol. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2417","DOI":"10.1175\/JAMC-D-14-0091.1","article-title":"Intense and Extreme Wind Speeds Observed by Anemometer and Seismic Networks: An Eastern U.S. Case Study","volume":"53","author":"Pryor","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteorol. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"673","DOI":"10.1007\/s40333-018-0094-y","article-title":"Characteristics of daily extreme wind gusts on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, China","volume":"10","author":"Yao","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Arid Land"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cheng, X., Wu, L., Hu, F., and Zeng, Q.-C. (2012). Parameterizations of some important characteristics of turbulent fluctuations and gusty wind disturbances in the atmospheric boundary layer. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos., 117.","DOI":"10.1029\/2011JD017191"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1459","DOI":"10.1175\/JAMC-D-18-0040.1","article-title":"Wind Gust Characterization at Wind Turbine Relevant Heights in Moderately Complex Terrain","volume":"57","author":"Hu","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteorol. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3797","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-19-3797-2019","article-title":"Characterizing wind gusts in complex terrain","volume":"19","author":"Letson","year":"2019","journal-title":"Atmos. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3178","DOI":"10.1175\/JAS-D-14-0311.1","article-title":"Multiple Regimes of Wind, Stratification, and Turbulence in the Stable Boundary Layer","volume":"72","author":"Monahan","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100429","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wace.2022.100429","article-title":"Tower-observed structural evolution of the low-level boundary layer before, during, and after gust front passage in a coastal area at low latitude","volume":"36","author":"Xie","year":"2022","journal-title":"Weather Clim. Extrem."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3267","DOI":"10.1175\/MWR-D-19-0316.1","article-title":"Characterizing Thunderstorm Gust Fronts near Complex Terrain","volume":"148","author":"Luchetti","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mon. Weather Rev."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105910","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosres.2021.105910","article-title":"Observations of wind and turbulence structures of Super Typhoons Hato and Mangkhut over land from a 356 m high meteorological tower","volume":"265","author":"He","year":"2022","journal-title":"Atmos. Res."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"276","DOI":"10.1007\/s00376-017-7075-5","article-title":"Observational study of surface wind along a sloping surface over mountainous terrain during winter","volume":"35","author":"Lee","year":"2018","journal-title":"Adv. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"927","DOI":"10.1007\/s00376-020-0043-5","article-title":"Machine Learning-based Weather Support for the 2022 Winter Olympics","volume":"37","author":"Xia","year":"2020","journal-title":"Adv. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2022EA002705","DOI":"10.1029\/2022EA002705","article-title":"Influence of Topography and the Underlying Surface of the Bohai Sea on Wind and Gust Forecasts","volume":"10","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Earth Space Sci."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Harper, B.A., Kepert, J.D., and Ginger, J.D. (2010, January 01). Guidelines for Converting between Various Wind Averaging Periods in Tropical Cyclone Conditions. World Meteorological Organization Technical Document WMO\/TD-1555. Available online: https:\/\/library.wmo.int\/index.php?lvl=notice_display&id=135."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1002017732694","article-title":"Wind Flow Over Complex Terrain: A Historical Perspective and the Prospect for Large-Eddy Modelling","volume":"96","author":"Wood","year":"2000","journal-title":"Bound. Layer Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2271","DOI":"10.1002\/we.1980","article-title":"Effects of an escarpment on flow parameters of relevance to wind turbines","volume":"19","author":"Barthelmie","year":"2016","journal-title":"Wind Energy"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5229","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-16-5229-2016","article-title":"Downscaling surface wind predictions from numerical weather prediction models in complex terrain with WindNinja","volume":"16","author":"Wagenbrenner","year":"2016","journal-title":"Atmos. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jweia.2018.01.037","article-title":"A hybrid approach for evaluating wind flow over a complex terrain","volume":"175","author":"Jubayer","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1025841424078","article-title":"Effective Roughness Calculated from Satellite-Derived Land Cover Maps and Hedge-Information used in a Weather Forecasting Model","volume":"109","author":"Hasager","year":"2003","journal-title":"Bound. Layer Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3932","DOI":"10.1002\/2017GL073124","article-title":"Subsynoptic-scale features associated with extreme surface gusts in UK extratropical cyclone events","volume":"44","author":"Earl","year":"2017","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.1016\/0167-6105(92)90427-C","article-title":"Wind characteristics in the surface layer over heterogeneous terrain","volume":"41","author":"Tieleman","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"457","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosres.2010.12.027","article-title":"A numerical study of the effects of orography on supercells","volume":"100","author":"Markowski","year":"2011","journal-title":"Atmos. Res."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.1007\/s10546-011-9637-x","article-title":"The Bolund Experiment, Part II: Blind Comparison of Microscale Flow Models","volume":"141","author":"Bechmann","year":"2011","journal-title":"Bound. Layer Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1007\/s10546-011-9636-y","article-title":"The Bolund Experiment, Part I: Flow Over a Steep, Three-Dimensional Hill","volume":"141","author":"Berg","year":"2011","journal-title":"Bound. Layer Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3785","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-15-3785-2015","article-title":"High-resolution observations of the near-surface wind field over an isolated mountain and in a steep river canyon","volume":"15","author":"Butler","year":"2015","journal-title":"Atmos. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Suomi, I., and Vihma, T. (2018). Wind Gust Measurement Techniques\u2014From Traditional Anemometry to New Possibilities. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18041300"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2940","DOI":"10.1002\/joc.3886","article-title":"Diurnal variation and the influential factors of precipitation from surface and satellite measurements in Tibet","volume":"34","author":"Guo","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"953","DOI":"10.1007\/BF03184018","article-title":"Dust storms and loess accumulation on the Tibetan Plateau: A case study of dust event on 4 March 2003 in Lhasa","volume":"49","author":"Fang","year":"2004","journal-title":"Chin. Sci. Bull."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2358","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosenv.2007.12.025","article-title":"Shifts of dust source regions over central Asia and the Tibetan Plateau: Connections with the Arctic oscillation and the westerly jet","volume":"42","author":"Han","year":"2008","journal-title":"Atmos. Environ."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"755","DOI":"10.1007\/s40333-015-0050-z","article-title":"Changes in wind activity from 1957 to 2011 and their possible influence on aeolian desertification in northern China","volume":"7","author":"Li","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Arid Land"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5956","DOI":"10.1002\/joc.7162","article-title":"Varied spatiotemporal changes in wind speed over the Tibetan Plateau and its surroundings in the past decades","volume":"41","author":"Ding","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, Y., Fan, S., Wang, L., Gao, Z., Zhang, Y., Zou, H., Miao, S., Li, Y., Huang, M., and Yim, S.H.L. (2020). Diurnal Evolution of the Wintertime Boundary Layer in Urban Beijing, China: Insights from Doppler Lidar and a 325-m Meteorological Tower. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12233935"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1263","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-19-1263-2019","article-title":"Analyzing the turbulent planetary boundary layer by remote sensing systems: The Doppler wind lidar, aerosol elastic lidar and microwave radiometer","volume":"19","author":"Landulfo","year":"2019","journal-title":"Atmos. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3243","DOI":"10.5194\/amt-15-3243-2022","article-title":"A new scanning scheme and flexible retrieval for mean winds and gusts from Doppler lidar measurements","volume":"15","author":"Steinheuer","year":"2022","journal-title":"Atmos. Meas. Tech."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, J., Song, X., Long, W., Fu, Y., Yun, L., and Zhang, M. (2022). Structure Analysis of the Sea Breeze Based on Doppler Lidar and Its Impact on Pollutants. Remote Sens., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14020324"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2061","DOI":"10.1002\/qj.3059","article-title":"Methodology for obtaining wind gusts using Doppler lidar","volume":"143","author":"Suomi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Clifton, A., Clive, P., Gottschall, J., Schlipf, D., Simley, E., Simmons, L., Stein, D., Trabucchi, D., Vasiljevic, N., and W\u00fcrth, I. (2018). IEA Wind Task 32: Wind Lidar Identifying and Mitigating Barriers to the Adoption of Wind Lidar. Remote Sens., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10030406"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hill, C. (2018). Coherent Focused Lidars for Doppler Sensing of Aerosols and Wind. Remote Sens., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10030466"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yuan, J., Wu, K., Wei, T., Wang, L., Shu, Z., Yang, Y., and Xia, H. (2021). Cloud Seeding Evidenced by Coherent Doppler Wind Lidar. Remote Sens., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13193815"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, F.T., Ting, K.M., and Zhou, Z.-H. (2008, January 15\u201319). Isolation Forest. Proceedings of the 2008 Eighth IEEE International Conference on Data Mining, Pisa, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICDM.2008.17"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2022JD038156","DOI":"10.1029\/2022JD038156","article-title":"Wind Gust Parameters in the Lower Troposphere Based on Doppler Lidar Data","volume":"128","author":"Zhou","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1652","DOI":"10.1175\/2010JTECHA1455.1","article-title":"A Method for Estimating the Turbulent Kinetic Energy Dissipation Rate from a Vertically Pointing Doppler Lidar, and Independent Evaluation from Balloon-Borne In Situ Measurements","volume":"27","author":"Illingworth","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1658","DOI":"10.1002\/qj.2468","article-title":"On the vertical structure of wind gusts","volume":"141","author":"Suomi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3151","DOI":"10.1175\/JAMC-D-17-0133.1","article-title":"Gust Factors: Meteorologically Stratified Climatology, Data Artifacts, and Utility in Forecasting Peak Gusts","volume":"56","author":"Harris","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteorol. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Miller, S.T.K., Keim, B.D., Talbot, R.W., and Mao, H. (2003). Sea breeze: Structure, forecasting, and impacts. Rev. Geophys., 41.","DOI":"10.1029\/2003RG000124"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106354","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosres.2022.106354","article-title":"Adaptability evaluation of boundary layer schemes for simulation of sea and land breeze circulation in the west coast of the Yellow Sea","volume":"278","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Atmos. Res."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9495","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-19-9495-2019","article-title":"Nocturnal boundary layer turbulence regimes analysis during the BLLAST campaign","volume":"19","author":"Udina","year":"2019","journal-title":"Atmos. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s00376-009-8207-3","article-title":"Gustiness and coherent structure of strong winds and their role in dust emission and entrainment","volume":"27","author":"Zeng","year":"2009","journal-title":"Adv. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"338","DOI":"10.1175\/JAS-D-11-082.1","article-title":"Turbulence Regimes and Turbulence Intermittency in the Stable Boundary Layer during CASES-99","volume":"69","author":"Sun","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1007\/s10546-016-0134-0","article-title":"The Role of Large-Coherent-Eddy Transport in the Atmospheric Surface Layer Based on CASES-99 Observations","volume":"160","author":"Sun","year":"2016","journal-title":"Bound. Layer Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"054050","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-9326\/abf461","article-title":"Spatiotemporal characteristics of atmospheric turbulence over China estimated using operational high-resolution soundings","volume":"16","author":"Lv","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3949","DOI":"10.1175\/2010JAS3508.1","article-title":"Analysis of Gravity Waves Generated at the Top of a Drainage Flow","volume":"67","author":"Viana","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"701","DOI":"10.1002\/qj.2004","article-title":"Model simulation of gravity waves triggered by a density current","volume":"139","author":"Udina","year":"2013","journal-title":"Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1007\/s10546-014-9942-2","article-title":"Observational and Numerical Simulation Study of a Sequence of Eight Atmospheric Density Currents in Northern Spain","volume":"153","author":"Soler","year":"2014","journal-title":"Bound. Layer Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"372","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0450(1968)007<0372:TVOGFW>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"The Variation of Gust Factors with Mean Wind Speed and with Height","volume":"7","author":"Davis","year":"1968","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteorol."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/15\/14\/3655\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T20:16:54Z","timestamp":1760127414000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/15\/14\/3655"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,21]]},"references-count":55,"journal-issue":{"issue":"14","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,7]]}},"alternative-id":["rs15143655"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs15143655","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2072-4292"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,21]]}}}