{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T02:20:04Z","timestamp":1760149204504,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":61,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"14","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,22]],"date-time":"2023-07-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1689984000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000190","name":"NOAA\u2013University of Oklahoma Cooperative Agreement","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NA21OAR4320204","FA9550-18-1-0358","DE-NA0003525","N00014-07-C-0147","AST-1835400","AGS-1708855"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NA21OAR4320204","FA9550-18-1-0358","DE-NA0003525","N00014-07-C-0147","AST-1835400","AGS-1708855"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000190","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"U.S. Department of Commerce","award":["NA21OAR4320204","FA9550-18-1-0358","DE-NA0003525","N00014-07-C-0147","AST-1835400","AGS-1708855"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NA21OAR4320204","FA9550-18-1-0358","DE-NA0003525","N00014-07-C-0147","AST-1835400","AGS-1708855"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000181","name":"AFOSR Award","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NA21OAR4320204","FA9550-18-1-0358","DE-NA0003525","N00014-07-C-0147","AST-1835400","AGS-1708855"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NA21OAR4320204","FA9550-18-1-0358","DE-NA0003525","N00014-07-C-0147","AST-1835400","AGS-1708855"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000181","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Sandia National Laboratories","award":["NA21OAR4320204","FA9550-18-1-0358","DE-NA0003525","N00014-07-C-0147","AST-1835400","AGS-1708855"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NA21OAR4320204","FA9550-18-1-0358","DE-NA0003525","N00014-07-C-0147","AST-1835400","AGS-1708855"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000015","name":"U.S. Department of Energy\u2019s National Nuclear Security Administration","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NA21OAR4320204","FA9550-18-1-0358","DE-NA0003525","N00014-07-C-0147","AST-1835400","AGS-1708855"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NA21OAR4320204","FA9550-18-1-0358","DE-NA0003525","N00014-07-C-0147","AST-1835400","AGS-1708855"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000015","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000181","name":"Office of Naval Research","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NA21OAR4320204","FA9550-18-1-0358","DE-NA0003525","N00014-07-C-0147","AST-1835400","AGS-1708855"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NA21OAR4320204","FA9550-18-1-0358","DE-NA0003525","N00014-07-C-0147","AST-1835400","AGS-1708855"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000181","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"AFOSR","award":["NA21OAR4320204","FA9550-18-1-0358","DE-NA0003525","N00014-07-C-0147","AST-1835400","AGS-1708855"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NA21OAR4320204","FA9550-18-1-0358","DE-NA0003525","N00014-07-C-0147","AST-1835400","AGS-1708855"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100006602","name":"Air Force Research Laboratory","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NA21OAR4320204","FA9550-18-1-0358","DE-NA0003525","N00014-07-C-0147","AST-1835400","AGS-1708855"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NA21OAR4320204","FA9550-18-1-0358","DE-NA0003525","N00014-07-C-0147","AST-1835400","AGS-1708855"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100006602","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000001","name":"National Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NA21OAR4320204","FA9550-18-1-0358","DE-NA0003525","N00014-07-C-0147","AST-1835400","AGS-1708855"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NA21OAR4320204","FA9550-18-1-0358","DE-NA0003525","N00014-07-C-0147","AST-1835400","AGS-1708855"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000001","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The Long Wavelength Array is a radio telescope array located at the Sevilleta National Wildlife Refuge in La Joya, New Mexico, well suited and situated for the observation of lightning. The array consists of 256 high-sensitivity dual polarization antennas arranged in a 100 m diameter. This paper demonstrates some of the capabilities that the array brings to the study of lightning. Once 32 or more antennas are used to image lightning radio sources, virtually every integration period longer than the impulse response of the array includes at least one identifiable lightning emitter, independent of the integration period used. The use of many antennas also allows multiple simultaneous lightning radio sources to be imaged at sub-microsecond timescales; for the flash examined, 51% of the images contained more than one lightning source. Finally, by using many antennas to image lightning sources, the array is capable of locating sources fainter than the galactic background radio noise level, yielding possibly the most sensitive radio maps of lightning to date. This incredible sensitivity enables, for the first time, the emissions originating from the positive leader tips of natural in-cloud lightning to be detected and located. The tip emission is distinctly different from needle emission and is most likely due to positive breakdown.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs15143657","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,24]],"date-time":"2023-07-24T01:12:28Z","timestamp":1690161148000},"page":"3657","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Lightning Interferometry with the Long Wavelength Array"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9333-6790","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Michael","family":"Stock","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Cooperative Institute for Severe and High-Impact Weather Research and Operations, the University of Oklahoma, and the OAR National Severe Storm Laboratory, Suite 2100 120 David L. Boren Blvd., Norman, OK 73072, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2558-6522","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Julia","family":"Tilles","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6495-7731","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Greg","family":"Taylor","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1407-0141","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jayce","family":"Dowell","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8626-6218","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ningyu","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of New Hampshire, DeMeritt Hall 237A, 9 Library Way, Durham, NH 03824, USA"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2457","DOI":"10.1029\/JC084iC05p02457","article-title":"Interferometric directions of lightning sources at 34 MHz","volume":"84","author":"Warwick","year":"1979","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Ocean."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7451","DOI":"10.1029\/JC086iC08p07451","article-title":"Two-dimensional interferometric positions of VHF lightning sources","volume":"86","author":"Hayenga","year":"1981","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Ocean."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1029\/RS020i002p00171","article-title":"VHF-UHF interferometric measurements, applications to lightning discharge mapping","volume":"20","author":"Richard","year":"1985","journal-title":"Radio Sci."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26641","DOI":"10.1029\/96JD01803","article-title":"The spatial and temporal development of intracloud lightning","volume":"101","author":"Shao","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2749","DOI":"10.1029\/94JD01943","article-title":"Radio interferometric observations of cloud-to-ground lightning phenomena in Florida","volume":"100","author":"Shao","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1917","DOI":"10.1029\/96GL00474","article-title":"Broad band radio interferometry for lightning observations","volume":"23","author":"Shao","year":"1996","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2769","DOI":"10.1029\/97GL02953","article-title":"Broad band interferometric measurement of rocket triggered lightning in Japan","volume":"24","author":"Ushio","year":"1997","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3134","DOI":"10.1002\/2013JD020217","article-title":"Continuous broadband digital interferometry of lightning using a generalized cross-correlation algorithm","volume":"119","author":"Stock","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13388","DOI":"10.1002\/2014JD022100","article-title":"Characteristics of a rocket-triggered lightning flash with large stroke number and the associated leader propagation","volume":"119","author":"Sun","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10721","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms10721","article-title":"Observations of narrow bipolar events reveal how lightning is initiated in thunderstorms","volume":"7","author":"Rison","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1648","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-019-09621-z","article-title":"Fast negative breakdown in in thunderstorms","volume":"4","author":"Tilles","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10326","DOI":"10.1029\/2018JD029096","article-title":"Broadband RF Interferometric Mapping and Polarization (BIMAP) Observations of Lightning Discharges: Revealing New Physics Insights into Breakdown Processes","volume":"123","author":"Shao","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2994","DOI":"10.1029\/2018JD029817","article-title":"Lightning initiation processes imaged with very high frequency broadband interferometry","volume":"124","author":"Lyu","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13556","DOI":"10.1029\/2019GL085635","article-title":"Needles and lightning leader dynamics imaged with 100\u2013200 MHz broadband VHF interferometry","volume":"46","author":"Pu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2019JD031940","DOI":"10.1029\/2019JD031940","article-title":"Observation of the Origin of Downward Terrestrial Gamma-Ray Flashes","volume":"125","author":"Belz","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2021GL097272","DOI":"10.1029\/2021GL097272","article-title":"Multi-Stroke Positive Cloud-to-Ground Lightning Sharing the Same Channel Observed with a VHF Broadband Interferometer","volume":"49","author":"Urbani","year":"2022","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, J., Wang, D., Huang, H., Wu, T., Takagi, N., and Yamamoto, K. (2023). A 3D interferometer-type lightning mapping array for observation of winter lightning in Japan. Remote Sens., 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs15071923"},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Taylor, G., Carilli, C.L., and Perley, R.A. (2008). Synthesis Imaing in Radio Astronomy II, Astronomical Society of the Pacific."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"A2","DOI":"10.1051\/0004-6361\/201220873","article-title":"LOFAR: The low-frequency array","volume":"556","author":"Wise","year":"2013","journal-title":"Astron. Astrophys."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"023025","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevD.107.023025","article-title":"Characteristics of recoil leaders as observed by LOFAR","volume":"107","author":"Hare","year":"2023","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. D"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"063022","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevD.104.063022","article-title":"Time resolved 3D interferometric imaging of a section of a negative leader with LOFAR","volume":"104","author":"Scholten","year":"2021","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. D"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2021GL095511","DOI":"10.1029\/2021GL095511","article-title":"The spontaneous nature of lightning initiation revealed","volume":"48","author":"Sterpka","year":"2021","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"062007","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevD.105.062007","article-title":"Interferometric imaging of intensely radiating negative leaders","volume":"105","author":"Scholten","year":"2022","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. D"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2021GL097367","DOI":"10.1029\/2021GL097367","article-title":"Implications of Multiple Corona Bursts in Lightning Processes for Radio Frequency Interferometer Observations","volume":"49","author":"Liu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1250004","DOI":"10.1142\/S2251171712500043","article-title":"First light for the first station of the long wavelength array","volume":"1","author":"Taylor","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Astron. Instrum."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1421","DOI":"10.1109\/JPROC.2009.2015683","article-title":"The long wavelength array","volume":"97","author":"Ellingson","year":"2009","journal-title":"Proc. IEEE"},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"11","article-title":"High-time-resolution imaging of lightning with the Long Wavelength Array","volume":"57","author":"Hartman","year":"2012","journal-title":"Bull. Am. Phys. Soc."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1419","DOI":"10.1029\/2018RS006680","article-title":"Using lightning as a HF signal source to produce ionograms","volume":"53","author":"Obenberger","year":"2018","journal-title":"Radio Sci."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1129","DOI":"10.1029\/2019RS006857","article-title":"Three-dimensional mapping of lightning-produced ionospheric reflections","volume":"54","author":"Malins","year":"2019","journal-title":"Radio Sci."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1750007","DOI":"10.1142\/S2251171717500076","article-title":"Bifrost: A Python\/C++ framework for high-throughput stream processing in astronomy","volume":"6","author":"Cranmer","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Astron. Instrum."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tilles, J.N., Liu, N., Dowell, J., Taylor, G., Clem, P.G., Edens, H., Sonnenfeld, R., and da Silva, C. (2020, January 7\u201317). Lightning observations with the Long Wavelength Array in Sevilleta New Mexico (LWA-SV). Proceedings of the AGU Fall Meeting, Virtual.","DOI":"10.2172\/1833155"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stock, M., and Krehbiel, P. (2014, January 11\u201318). Multiple baseline lightning interferometry-Improving the detection of low amplitude VHF sources. Proceedings of the 2014 International Conference on Lightning Protection (ICLP), Shanghai, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICLP.2014.6973139"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8135","DOI":"10.1002\/2016JD025909","article-title":"Fast Positive Breakdown in Lightning","volume":"112","author":"Stock","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2020JD032603","DOI":"10.1029\/2020JD032603","article-title":"Radio Interferometer Observations of an Energetic in-Cloud Pulse Reveal Large Currents Generated by Relativistic Discharges","volume":"125","author":"Tilles","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_35","first-page":"55","article-title":"Aperture synthesis with a non-regular distribution of interferometer baselines","volume":"15","year":"1974","journal-title":"Astrophys. J. Suppl. Ser."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Marshall, T.C., Stolzenburg, M., Maggio, C.R., Coleman, L.M., Krehbiel, P.R., Hamlin, T., Thomas, R.J., and Rison, W. (2005). Observed electric fields associated with lightning initiation. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32.","DOI":"10.1029\/2004GL021802"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Boyd, S., and Vandenberghe, L. (2018). Introduction to Applied Linear Algebra: Vectors, Matrices, and Least Squares, Cambridge University Press.","DOI":"10.1017\/9781108583664"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Akita, M., Nakamura, Y., Yoshida, S., Morimoto, T., Ushio, T., Kawasaki, Z., and Wang, D. (2010). What occurs in K process of cloud flashes?. J. Geophys. Res., 115.","DOI":"10.1029\/2009JD012016"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"360","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-019-1086-6","article-title":"Needle-like structures discovered on positively charged lightning branches","volume":"568","author":"Hare","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12479","DOI":"10.1002\/2014JD022080","article-title":"On the relationship between continuing current and positive leader growth","volume":"119","author":"Lapierre","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9983","DOI":"10.1029\/2019JD030783","article-title":"Velocities of positive leaders in intracloud and negative cloud-to-ground lightning flashes","volume":"124","author":"Wu","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Saba, M.M.F., Cummins, K.L., Warner, T.A., Krider, E.P., Campos, L.Z.S., Ballarotti, M.G., Pinto, O., and Fleenor, S.A. (2008). Positive leader characteristics from high-speed video observations. Geophys. Res. Lett., 35.","DOI":"10.1029\/2007GL033000"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yoshida, S., Biagi, C.J., Rakov, V.A., Hill, J.D., Stapleton, M.V., Jordan, D.M., Uman, M.A., Morimoto, T., Ushio, T., and Kawasaki, Z. (2010). Three-dimensional imaging of upward positive leaders in triggered lightning using VHF broadband digital interferometers. Geophys. Res. Lett., 37.","DOI":"10.1029\/2009GL042065"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1016\/j.astropartphys.2014.06.006","article-title":"An interferometric analysis method for radio impulses from ultra-high energy particle showers","volume":"60","author":"Hoover","year":"2015","journal-title":"Astropart. Phys."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105139","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosres.2020.105139","article-title":"A new approach to map lightning channels based on low-frequency interferometry","volume":"247","author":"Zhu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Atmos. Res."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6085","DOI":"10.1002\/2013JD020378","article-title":"Data processing procedure using distribution of slopes of phase differences for broadband VHF interferometer","volume":"119","author":"Akita","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25731","DOI":"10.1029\/95JD02364","article-title":"Correlated high-speed video and radio interferometric observations of a cloud-to-ground lightning flash","volume":"100","author":"Mazur","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Saba, M.M., Campos, L.Z., Krider, E.P., and Pinto, O. (2009). High-speed video observations of positive ground flashes produced by intracloud lightning. Geophys. Res. Lett., 36.","DOI":"10.1029\/2009GL038791"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hill, J.D., Uman, M.A., and Jordan, D.M. (2011). High-speed video observations of a lightning stepped leader. J. Geophys. Res., 116.","DOI":"10.1029\/2011JD015818"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Warner, T.A., Orville, R.E., Marshall, J., and Huggins, K. (2011). Spectral (600\u20131050 nm) time exposures (99.6 \u03bcs) of a lightning stepped leader. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos., 116.","DOI":"10.1029\/2011JD015663"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12198","DOI":"10.1002\/2014JD021994","article-title":"Leader observations during the initial breakdown stage of a lightning flash","volume":"119","author":"Stolzenburg","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Edens, H.E., Eack, K.B., Eastvedt, E.M., Trueblood, J.J., Winn, W.P., Krehbie, P.R., Aulich, G.D., Hunyady, S.J., Murray, W.C., and Rison, W. (2012). VHF lightning mapping observations of a triggered lightning flash. Geophys. Res. Lett., 39.","DOI":"10.1029\/2012GL053666"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13504","DOI":"10.1002\/2013JD020257","article-title":"Asymmetries in bidirectional leader development of lightning flashes","volume":"118","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"Tilles, J.N. (2020). Broadband Radio Mapping and Imaging of Lightning Processes. [Ph.D. Thesis, University of New Hampshire]."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2020GL091553","DOI":"10.1029\/2020GL091553","article-title":"Lightning Initiation from Fast Negative Breakdown is Led by Positive Polarity Dominated Streamers","volume":"48","author":"Huang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2021GL093145","DOI":"10.1029\/2021GL093145","article-title":"VHF radio spectrum of a positive leader and implications for electric fields","volume":"48","author":"Pu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bazelyan, E.M., and Raizer, Y.P. (2000). Lightning Physics and Lightning Protection, CRC Press.","DOI":"10.1201\/9780367801533"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"043012","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevD.104.043012","article-title":"Terrestrial gamma-ray flashes initiated by positive leaders","volume":"104","author":"Dwyer","year":"2021","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. D"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1189","DOI":"10.1029\/JZ065i004p01189","article-title":"A comparison of intracloud and cloud-to-ground lightning discharges","volume":"65","author":"Kitagawa","year":"1960","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Da Silva, C.L., Winn, W.P., Taylor, M.C., Aulich, G.D., Hunyady, S.J., Eack, K.B., Edens, H.E., Sonnenfeld, R.G., Krehbiel, P.R., and Eastvedt, E.M. (2023). Polarity asymmetries in rocket-triggered lightning. Geophys. Res. Lett., Submitted for Publication.","DOI":"10.1029\/2023GL105041"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2019JD032273","DOI":"10.1029\/2019JD032273","article-title":"Lightning interferometry uncertainty, beam steering interferometry, and evidence of lightning being ignited by a cosmic ray shower","volume":"125","author":"Shao","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/15\/14\/3657\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T20:16:58Z","timestamp":1760127418000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/15\/14\/3657"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,22]]},"references-count":61,"journal-issue":{"issue":"14","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,7]]}},"alternative-id":["rs15143657"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs15143657","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2072-4292"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,22]]}}}