{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,7]],"date-time":"2026-02-07T12:11:28Z","timestamp":1770466288900,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":76,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"15","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,25]],"date-time":"2023-07-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1690243200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"United States Office of Naval Research Arctic and Global Prediction","award":["#N00014-20-1-2680"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["#N00014-20-1-2680"]}]},{"name":"United States Office of Naval Research Arctic and Global Prediction","award":["JA-7320-23-5943"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["JA-7320-23-5943"]}]},{"name":"NRL","award":["#N00014-20-1-2680"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["#N00014-20-1-2680"]}]},{"name":"NRL","award":["JA-7320-23-5943"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["JA-7320-23-5943"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Freshwater content (FWC), generally characterized in the Arctic Ocean by salinities lower than 34.8 psu, has shifted in both quantity and distribution in recent decades in the Arctic Ocean. This has been largely driven by changes in the volume and salinity of freshwater sources and the direction and magnitude of major currents. In this study, we analyze the variability in FWC and other physical oceanographic variables from 1993 to 2021 in the Arctic Ocean and Beaufort Gyre (BG) using in situ and remote sensing observations and five ocean models and reanalysis products. Generally, ocean models and reanalysis products underestimate FWC in the BG when compared with observations. Modeled FWC and sea surface height (SSH) in the BG are well correlated during the time period and are similar to correlations of the observational data of these variables. ORAS5 compares best to EN4 salinity over the entire study period, although GLORYS12 agrees well pre-2007 and SODA post-2007. Outside the BG, consistency between modeled SSH, FWC, and limited observations varies between models. These comparisons help identify discrepancies in ocean model and reanalysis products while highlighting areas where future improvements are necessary to further our understanding of Arctic FWC. As observations are scarce in the Arctic, these products and their accuracy are important to studying this dynamic and vulnerable ocean.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs15153715","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,26]],"date-time":"2023-07-26T01:09:01Z","timestamp":1690333741000},"page":"3715","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Comparison of Freshwater Content and Variability in the Arctic Ocean Using Observations and Model Simulations"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-0478-3751","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Emma L.","family":"Hoffman","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of the Earth, Ocean, and Environment, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29208, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3465-8065","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bulusu","family":"Subrahmanyam","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of the Earth, Ocean, and Environment, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29208, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1908-4713","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Corinne B.","family":"Trott","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Naval Research Laboratory, Stennis Space Center, Kiln, MS 39556, USA"}]},{"given":"Sarah B.","family":"Hall","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of the Earth, Ocean, and Environment, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29208, USA"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14485","DOI":"10.1029\/JC094iC10p14485","article-title":"The Role of Sea Ice and Other Fresh Water in the Arctic Circulation","volume":"94","author":"Aagaard","year":"1989","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4833","DOI":"10.1029\/JC090iC03p04833","article-title":"Thermohaline Circulation in the Arctic Mediterranean Seas","volume":"90","author":"Aagaard","year":"1985","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9658","DOI":"10.1029\/2019JC015281","article-title":"Analysis of the Beaufort Gyre Freshwater Content in 2003\u20132018","volume":"124","author":"Proshutinsky","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Ocean."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"675","DOI":"10.1002\/2015JG003140","article-title":"Freshwater and Its Role in the Arctic Marine System: Sources, Disposition, Storage, Export, and Physical and Biogeochemical Consequences in the Arctic and Global Oceans","volume":"121","author":"Carmack","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Biogeosci."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gloplacha.2014.11.013","article-title":"Arctic Freshwater Export: Status, Mechanisms, and Prospects","volume":"125","author":"Haine","year":"2015","journal-title":"Glob. Planet. Chang."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1499","DOI":"10.1002\/2017GL076229","article-title":"Arctic Ice-Ocean Coupling and Gyre Equilibration Observed With Remote Sensing","volume":"45","author":"Dewey","year":"2018","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3107","DOI":"10.1029\/2018JC014897","article-title":"A Three-Way Balance in the Beaufort Gyre: The Ice-Ocean Governor, Wind Stress, and Eddy Diffusivity","volume":"124","author":"Doddridge","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Ocean."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1393","DOI":"10.1175\/JPO-D-14-0183.1","article-title":"On the Interplay between the Circulation in the Surface and the Intermediate Layers of the Arctic Ocean","volume":"45","author":"Lique","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Phys. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"269","article-title":"Exploring the Role of the \u201cIce-Ocean Governor\u201d and Mesoscale Eddies in the Equilibration of the Beaufort Gyre: Lessons from Observations","volume":"49","author":"Meneghello","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Phys. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2679","DOI":"10.1029\/2018JC014624","article-title":"Critical Role of Continental Slopes in Halocline and Eddy Dynamics of the Ekman-Driven Beaufort Gyre","volume":"124","author":"Manucharyan","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Ocean."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4696","DOI":"10.1029\/2019JC015022","article-title":"On the Origin of Water Masses in the Beaufort Gyre","volume":"124","author":"Kelly","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Ocean."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4956","DOI":"10.1029\/2018GL077901","article-title":"Arctic Sea Ice Decline Significantly Contributed to the Unprecedented Liquid Freshwater Accumulation in the Beaufort Gyre of the Arctic Ocean","volume":"45","author":"Wang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1297","DOI":"10.1029\/98GL00950","article-title":"The Arctic Oscillation Signature in the Wintertime Geopotential Height and Temperature Fields","volume":"25","author":"Thompson","year":"1998","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"1","article-title":"Drift of Ice in the Arctic Basin and Changes in Ice Conditions over the Northern Sea Route","volume":"11","author":"Sokolov","year":"1962","journal-title":"Probl. Arct. Antarct."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.1038\/nature10705","article-title":"Changing Arctic Ocean Freshwater Pathways","volume":"481","author":"Morison","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1053","DOI":"10.1175\/JPO-D-20-0190.1","article-title":"The Cyclonic Mode of Arctic Ocean Circulation","volume":"51","author":"Morison","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Phys. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2438","DOI":"10.1175\/2008JCLI2819.1","article-title":"Outflow of Arctic Ocean Sea Ice into the Greenland and Barent Seas: 1979-2007","volume":"22","author":"Kwok","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2277","DOI":"10.1175\/JCLI-D-18-0605.1","article-title":"Temperature and Salinity Variability in the SODA3, ECCO4r3, and ORAS5 Ocean Reanalyses, 1993\u20132015","volume":"32","author":"Carton","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3803","DOI":"10.1002\/2016JC011898","article-title":"Forum for Arctic Modeling and Observational Synthesis (FAMOS): Past, Current, and Future Activities","volume":"121","author":"Proshutinsky","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Ocean."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ocemod.2015.12.008","article-title":"An Assessment of the Arctic Ocean in a Suite of Interannual CORE-II Simulations. Part I: Sea Ice and Solid Freshwater","volume":"99","author":"Wang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ocean. Model. Oxf."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hall, S.B., Subrahmanyam, B., and Morison, J.H. (2022). Intercomparison of Salinity Products in the Beaufort Gyre and Arctic Ocean. Remote Sens., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14010071"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2020JC016110","DOI":"10.1029\/2020JC016110","article-title":"Sea Surface Salinity as a Proxy for Arctic Ocean Freshwater Changes","volume":"125","author":"Fournier","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Ocean."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"194","DOI":"10.1038\/ngeo1379","article-title":"Western Arctic Ocean Freshwater Storage Increased by Wind-Driven Spin-up of the Beaufort Gyre","volume":"5","author":"Giles","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4303","DOI":"10.1002\/2015JC011579","article-title":"Arctic Sea Surface Height Variability and Change from Satellite Radar Altimetry and GRACE, 2003\u20132014","volume":"121","author":"Armitage","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Ocean."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fournier, S., Lee, T., Tang, W., Steele, M., and Olmedo, E. (2019). Evaluation and Intercomparison of SMOS, Aquarius, and SMAP Sea Surface Salinity Products in the Arctic Ocean. Remote. Sens., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11243043"},{"key":"ref_26","first-page":"222","article-title":"SIDEBAR Changes in Arctic Ocean Circulation from In Situ and Remotely Sensed Observations SYNERGIES AND SAMPLING CHALLENGES","volume":"35","author":"Morison","year":"2022","journal-title":"Oceanography"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.5194\/essd-14-307-2022","article-title":"Improved BEC SMOS Arctic Sea Surface Salinity Product v3.1","volume":"14","author":"Turiel","year":"2022","journal-title":"Earth Syst. Sci. Data"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Meissner, T., and Wentz, F.J. (2019). Remote Sensing Systems SMAP Ocean Surface Salinities [Level 2C, Level 3 Running 8-Day, Level 3 Monthly], Version 4.0 Validated Release, Remote Sensing Systems.","DOI":"10.56236\/RSS-bf"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vazquez-Cuervo, J., Gentemann, C., Tang, W., Carroll, D., Zhang, H., Menemenlis, D., Gomez-Valdes, J., Bouali, M., and Steele, M. (2021). Using Saildrones to Validate Arctic Sea-Surface Salinity from the Smap Satellite and from Ocean Models. Remote Sens., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13050831"},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Melnichenko, O., Hacker, P., Potemra, J., Meissner, T., and Wentz, F. (2021, September 10). Aquarius\/SMAP Sea Surface Salinity Optimum Interpolation Analysis. IPRC Tech. Note No. 7 2021, Available online: https:\/\/podaac-tools.jpl.nasa.gov\/drive\/files\/allData\/smap\/docs\/OISSS_V1."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"(2021, September 10). IPRC\/SOEST University of Hawaii Manoa Multi-Mission Optimally Interpolated Sea Surface Salinity Global Monthly Dataset V1. Ver. 1.0. PO.DAAC, CA, USA, Available online: https:\/\/podaac.jpl.nasa.gov\/dataset\/OISSS_L4_multimission_monthly_v1."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"602","DOI":"10.1002\/2015JC011343","article-title":"Optimum Interpolation Analysis of Aquarius Sea Surface Salinity","volume":"121","author":"Melnichenko","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Ocean."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"795","DOI":"10.1175\/JPO-D-17-0188.1","article-title":"Observations of Seasonal Upwelling and Downwelling in the Beaufort Sea Mediated by Sea Ice","volume":"48","author":"Meneghello","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Phys. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"844","DOI":"10.1029\/2018JC014379","article-title":"The Beaufort Gyre Extent, Shape, and Location Between 2003 and 2014 From Satellite Observations","volume":"124","author":"Regan","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Ocean."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"812","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dsr.2010.03.011","article-title":"On Depth and Temperature Biases in Bathythermograph Data: Development of a New Correction Scheme Based on Analysis of a Global Ocean Database","volume":"57","author":"Gouretski","year":"2010","journal-title":"Deep Sea Res. 1 Oceanogr. Res. Pap."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"841","DOI":"10.1175\/JTECH-D-19-0205.1","article-title":"Correction for Systematic Errors in the Global Dataset of Temperature Profiles from Mechanical Bathythermographs","volume":"37","author":"Gouretski","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6704","DOI":"10.1002\/2013JC009067","article-title":"EN4: Quality Controlled Ocean Temperature and Salinity Profiles and Monthly Objective Analyses with Uncertainty Estimates","volume":"118","author":"Good","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Ocean."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2021JC017701","DOI":"10.1029\/2021JC017701","article-title":"Changes in Freshwater Distribution and Pathways in the Arctic Ocean Since 2007 in the Mercator Ocean Global Operational System","volume":"127","author":"Bertosio","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Ocean."},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"1","article-title":"Synopsis of the ECCO Central Production Global Ocean and Sea-Ice State Estimate, Version 4 Release 4 (Version 4 Release 4)","volume":"3","author":"Fukumori","year":"2021","journal-title":"Zenodo"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3071","DOI":"10.5194\/gmd-8-3071-2015","article-title":"ECCO Version 4: An Integrated Framework for Non-Linear Inverse Modeling and Global Ocean State Estimation","volume":"8","author":"Forget","year":"2015","journal-title":"Geosci. Model. Dev."},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"3217","article-title":"Causal Mechanisms of Sea Level and Freshwater Content Change in the Beaufort Sea","volume":"51","author":"Fukumori","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Phys. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15-1","DOI":"10.1029\/1999GB001254","article-title":"High-Resolution Fields of Global Runoff Combining Observed River Discharge and Simulated Water Balances","volume":"16","author":"Fekete","year":"2002","journal-title":"Glob. Biogeochem. Cycles"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2773","DOI":"10.1175\/2008JCLI2592.1","article-title":"Changes in Continental Freshwater Discharge from 1948 to 2004","volume":"22","author":"Dai","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"Madec, G., and NEMO team (2008). NEMO Ocean Note du P\u00f4le de Modelisation, Institut Pierre-Simon Laplace (IPSL)."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6414","DOI":"10.1029\/2019JC015111","article-title":"Pacific Water Pathway in the Arctic Ocean and Beaufort Gyre in Two Simulations With Different Horizontal Resolutions","volume":"124","author":"Hu","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Ocean."},{"key":"ref_46","first-page":"2052","article-title":"Arctic Mass, Freshwater and Heat Fluxes: Methods and Modelled Seasonal Variability","volume":"373","author":"Bacon","year":"2015","journal-title":"Philos. Trans. R. Soc. A Math. Phys. Eng. Sci."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1729","DOI":"10.1175\/2010JPO4323.1","article-title":"Sea Ice Response to Atmospheric and Oceanic Forcing in the Bering Sea","volume":"40","author":"Zhang","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Phys. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7933","DOI":"10.1002\/2016JC012196","article-title":"The Beaufort Gyre Intensification and Stabilization: A Model-Observation Synthesis","volume":"121","author":"Zhang","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Ocean."},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"Zhang, J., Schweiger, A., and Steele, M. (2023). MIZMAS: Modeling the Evolution of Ice Thickness and Floe Size Distributions in the Marginal Ice Zone of the Chukchi and Beaufort Seas. Distrib. Statement A, Available online: https:\/\/apps.dtic.mil\/sti\/tr\/pdf\/ADA601248.pdf."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"779","DOI":"10.5194\/os-15-779-2019","article-title":"The ECMWF Operational Ensemble Reanalysis-Analysis System for Ocean and Sea Ice: A Description of the System and Assessment","volume":"15","author":"Zuo","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ocean. Sci."},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"Zuo, H., Alonso-Balmaseda, M., Mogensen, K., and Tietsche, S. (2018). OCEAN5: The ECMWF Ocean Reanalysis System and Its Real-Time Analysis Component, European Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasts."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"698876","DOI":"10.3389\/feart.2021.698876","article-title":"The Copernicus Global 1\/12 Oceanic and Sea Ice GLORYS12 Reanalysis","volume":"9","author":"Lellouche","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2020JC016317","DOI":"10.1029\/2020JC016317","article-title":"Assessing Eddying (1\/12) Ocean Reanalysis GLORYS12 Using the 14-Yr Instrumental Record From 59.5\u00b0N Section in the Atlantic","volume":"126","author":"Verezemskaya","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Ocean."},{"key":"ref_54","first-page":"18776","article-title":"Performance and Quality Assessment of the Global Ocean Eddy-Permitting Physical Reanalysis GLORYS2V4","volume":"19","author":"Garric","year":"2017","journal-title":"Eguga"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6967","DOI":"10.1175\/JCLI-D-18-0149.1","article-title":"SODA3: A New Ocean Climate Reanalysis","volume":"31","author":"Carton","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pocean.2014.12.005","article-title":"Seasonal and Interannual Variability of Pan-Arctic Surface Mixed Layer Properties from 1979 to 2012 from Hydrographic Data, and the Dominance of Stratification for Multiyear Mixed Layer Depth Shoaling","volume":"134","author":"Woodgate","year":"2015","journal-title":"Prog. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Matthews, J.L., Peng, G., Meier, W.N., and Brown, O. (2020). Sensitivity of Arctic Sea Ice Extent to Sea Ice Concentration Threshold Choice and Its Implication to Ice Coverage Decadal Trends and Statistical Projections. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12050807"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"C1","DOI":"10.1029\/2011JC007174","article-title":"The Arctic Ocean in Summer: A Quasi-Synoptic Inverse Estimate of Boundary Fluxes and Water Mass Transformation","volume":"117","author":"Tsubouchi","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Ocean."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2309","DOI":"10.1175\/JPO-D-19-0102.1","article-title":"Freshwater in the Ocean Is Not a Useful Parameter in Climate Research","volume":"49","author":"Schauer","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Phys. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_60","unstructured":"Carmack, E., McLaughlin, F., Yamamoto-Kawai, M., Itoh, M., Shimada, K., Krishfield, R., and Proshutinsky, A. (2008). Arctic-Subarctic Ocean Fluxes: Defining the Role of the Northern Seas in Climate, Springer."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1765","DOI":"10.1007\/s00382-019-04735-y","article-title":"Sensitivity of the Arctic Freshwater Content and Transport to Model Resolution","volume":"53","author":"Koenigk","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clim. Dyn."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1125","DOI":"10.1175\/JPO-D-16-0158.1","article-title":"An Edge-Referenced Surface Fresh Layer in the Beaufort Sea Seasonal Ice Zone","volume":"47","author":"Dewey","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Phys. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2022JC019247","DOI":"10.1029\/2022JC019247","article-title":"The Role of the Russian Shelf in Seasonal and Interannual Variability of Arctic Sea Surface Salinity and Freshwater Content","volume":"128","author":"Hall","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Ocean."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"C1","DOI":"10.1029\/2008JC005104","article-title":"Beaufort Gyre Freshwater Reservoir: State and Variability from Observations","volume":"114","author":"Proshutinsky","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hall, S.B., Subrahmanyam, B., Nyadjro, E.S., and Samuelsen, A. (2021). Surface Freshwater Fluxes in the Arctic and Subarctic Seas during Contrasting Years of High and Low Summer Sea Ice Extent. Remote Sens., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13081570"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5008","DOI":"10.1002\/2017GL073042","article-title":"Seasonally Derived Components of the Canada Basin Halocline","volume":"44","author":"Timmermans","year":"2017","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7523","DOI":"10.1002\/2014JC010273","article-title":"Mechanisms of Pacific Summer Water Variability in the Arctic\u2019s Central Canada Basin","volume":"119","author":"Timmermans","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Ocean."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2021GL092528","DOI":"10.1029\/2021GL092528","article-title":"Warming and Freshening of the Pacific Inflow to the Arctic From 1990-2019 Implying Dramatic Shoaling in Pacific Winter Water Ventilation of the Arctic Water Column","volume":"48","author":"Woodgate","year":"2021","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6576","DOI":"10.1029\/2018GL078386","article-title":"Arctic Sea Level and Surface Circulation Response to the Arctic Oscillation","volume":"45","author":"Armitage","year":"2018","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1081","DOI":"10.5194\/os-17-1081-2021","article-title":"Freshwater in the Arctic Ocean 2010-2019","volume":"17","author":"Solomon","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ocean. Sci."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2022GL100457","DOI":"10.1029\/2022GL100457","article-title":"Asymmetrically Stratified Beaufort Gyre: Mean State and Response to Decadal Forcing","volume":"50","author":"Zhang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, Q., and Danilov, S. (2022). A Synthesis of the Upper Arctic Ocean Circulation During 2000\u20132019: Understanding the Roles of Wind Forcing and Sea Ice Decline. Front. Mar. Sci., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmars.2022.863204"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"485","DOI":"10.1038\/s41561-023-01184-5","article-title":"Recent State Transition of the Arctic Ocean\u2019s Beaufort Gyre","volume":"16","author":"Lin","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"845","DOI":"10.1175\/JPO-D-20-0077.1","article-title":"Vertical Structure of the Beaufort Gyre Halocline and the Crucial Role of the Depth-Dependent Eddy Diffusivity","volume":"51","author":"Kenigson","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Phys. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"863","DOI":"10.1029\/2018JC014604","article-title":"Circulation of Pacific Winter Water in the Western Arctic Ocean","volume":"124","author":"Zhong","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Ocean."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2333","DOI":"10.1175\/JCLI-D-22-0340.1","article-title":"RARE: The Regional Arctic Reanalysis","volume":"36","author":"Carton","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Clim."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/15\/15\/3715\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T20:18:42Z","timestamp":1760127522000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/15\/15\/3715"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,25]]},"references-count":76,"journal-issue":{"issue":"15","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,8]]}},"alternative-id":["rs15153715"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs15153715","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,25]]}}}