{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,17]],"date-time":"2026-03-17T03:08:50Z","timestamp":1773716930928,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":84,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"15","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,2]],"date-time":"2023-08-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1690934400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100006759","name":"California Department of Food and Agriculture","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["18-0652-000-SG"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["18-0652-000-SG"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100006759","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Controlling non-native plant invasions that reduce the quality of preferred wetland habitats is a challenge for many wetland managers. Herbicides may be used to control invasions, but it may be difficult to find effective application methods depending on the terrain. Manned aircraft cover large patches, but aerial use is limited by high costs, weather conditions, and overspray concerns. Ground applications target smaller patches, but their effectiveness may be limited by accessibility, labor costs, and applicator health concerns. Considering these difficulties, unmanned aerial systems (UAS) have emerged as a viable alternative for more effectively treating plant invasions. We tested the use of a specialized UAS to control invasive perennial pepperweed (Lepidium latifolium) in Suisun Marsh in northern California, USA. This \u201cspray drone\u201d flew at an altitude of 2\u20133 m, a speed of 24 kmph, and applied herbicide with a swath width of 6 m. We applied herbicide with the spray drone to treat small patches before they expanded. To delineate invasive patch boundaries, we first flew a survey drone with a 4K resolution camera to detect emerging plants with color imagery and conduct an initial classification analysis. We subsequently visited areas with suspected invasive patches based on the classification, and observers manually confirmed the presence of the invasive species. We then flew the spray drone on transects to treat the patches and examined the results with post-treatment survey drone imagery and plots along ground transects. In total, we sprayed 14 ha of Lepidium across eight sites and found that 87% of the Lepidium was discernibly affected by our herbicide treatment. Furthermore, we measured the overspray, which was substantially less than that reported for other aerial application methods such as helicopter-spraying, and our estimated operational costs were lower. Our results indicated that applying remote-sensing imagery for the identification of invasive species patches and the use of a spray drone for treatment may be an effective means of controlling invasive plants with high precision at a reasonable cost. In the near future, a unified UAS system that both identifies invasive species and then treats them in a single pass should be a promising goal for early detection and rapid response in wetland management.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs15153845","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,2]],"date-time":"2023-08-02T10:57:33Z","timestamp":1690973853000},"page":"3845","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["The Sky Is Not the Limit: Use of a Spray Drone for the Precise Application of Herbicide and Control of an Invasive Plant in Managed Wetlands"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"John Y.","family":"Takekawa","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Suisun Resource Conservation District, 2544 Grizzly Island Road, Suisun City, CA 94585, USA"}]},{"given":"Jason S.","family":"Hagani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Suisun Resource Conservation District, 2544 Grizzly Island Road, Suisun City, CA 94585, USA"}]},{"given":"Timothy J.","family":"Edmunds","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Suisun Resource Conservation District, 2544 Grizzly Island Road, Suisun City, CA 94585, USA"}]},{"given":"Jesirae M.","family":"Collins","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Suisun Resource Conservation District, 2544 Grizzly Island Road, Suisun City, CA 94585, USA"}]},{"given":"Steven C.","family":"Chappell","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Suisun Resource Conservation District, 2544 Grizzly Island Road, Suisun City, CA 94585, USA"}]},{"given":"William H.","family":"Reynolds","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Leading Edge Aerial Technologies, 506 Fentress Boulevard, Daytona Beach, FL 32114, USA"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"1","article-title":"Introduced Species: A significant component of human-caused global change","volume":"21","author":"Vitousek","year":"1997","journal-title":"N. Z. J. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1132","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1523-1739.2004.00391.x","article-title":"Effect of Invasive Plant Species on Temperate Wetland Plant Diversity","volume":"18","author":"Houlahan","year":"2004","journal-title":"Conserv. Biol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.1111\/j.0030-1299.2004.12682.x","article-title":"Are Invasive Plant Species Better Competitors than Native Plant Species? Evidence from Pair-Wise Experiments","volume":"105","author":"Vila","year":"2004","journal-title":"Oikos"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"431","DOI":"10.1080\/07352680490514673","article-title":"Causes and Consequences of Invasive Plants in Wetlands: Opportunities, Opportunists, and Outcomes","volume":"23","author":"Zedler","year":"2004","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Plant Sci."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1461-0248.2009.01418.x","article-title":"A Meta-Analysis of Trait Differences between Invasive and Non-Invasive Plant Species","volume":"13","author":"Weber","year":"2010","journal-title":"Ecol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apsoil.2005.01.010","article-title":"Impacts from Invasive Plant Species and Their Control on the Plant Community and Belowground Ecosystem at Rocky Mountain National Park, USA","volume":"32","author":"Pritekel","year":"2006","journal-title":"Appl. Soil Ecol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"934","DOI":"10.1071\/MF14173","article-title":"How Much Wetland Has the World Lost? Long-Term and Recent Trends in Global Wetland Area","volume":"65","author":"Davidson","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mar. Freshw. Res."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1093\/jmammal\/gyz183","article-title":"Demography of the Salt Marsh Harvest Mouse (Reithrodontomys raviventris halicoetes) and Associated Rodents in Tidal and Managed Wetlands","volume":"101","author":"Smith","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Mammal."},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"97","article-title":"Invasive Plants in Coastal Wetlands: Patterns and Mechanisms","volume":"Volume 238","author":"Chen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Wetlands: Ecosystem Services, Restoration and Wise Use"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Moyle, P.B., Manfree, A.D., and Fiedler, P.L. (2014). Suisun Marsh: Ecological History and Possible Futures, University of California Press.","DOI":"10.1525\/california\/9780520276086.001.0001"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"644","DOI":"10.1007\/s00267-020-01326-0","article-title":"Brackish Tidal Marsh Management and the Ecology of a Declining Freshwater Turtle","volume":"66","author":"Agha","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1910","DOI":"10.1111\/1365-2664.13845","article-title":"Waterfowl Use of Wetland Habitats Informs Wetland Restoration Designs for Multi-Species Benefits","volume":"58","author":"Casazza","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Appl. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2351","DOI":"10.1007\/s10530-008-9421-0","article-title":"Lepidium latifolium Reproductive Potential and Seed Dispersal along Salinity and Moisture Gradients","volume":"11","author":"Leininger","year":"2009","journal-title":"Biol. Invasions"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e03155","DOI":"10.1002\/ecs2.3155","article-title":"Time-Lagged Impacts of Extreme, Multi-Year Drought on Tidal Salt Marsh Plant Invasion","volume":"11","author":"Wigginton","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ecosphere"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130","DOI":"10.1614\/IPSM-D-09-00015.1","article-title":"Perennial Pepperweed (Lepidium latifolium): Properties of Invaded Tidal Marshes","volume":"3","author":"Reynolds","year":"2010","journal-title":"Invasive Plant Sci. Manag."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1014943304721","article-title":"Amidohydrolase Activity, Soil N Status, and the Invasive Crucifer Lepidium latifolium","volume":"239","author":"Blank","year":"2002","journal-title":"Plant Soil"},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Spautz, H., and Nur, N. (2004). Impacts of Non-Native Perennial Pepperweed (Lepidium latifolium) on Abundance, Distribution and Reproductive Success of San Francisco Bay Tidal Marsh Birds. PRBO Conserv. Sci., 1\u201390."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"731","DOI":"10.1007\/s11273-010-9193-z","article-title":"Control of Lepidium latifolium (Perennial Pepperweed) and Recovery of Native Plants in Tidal Marshes of the San Francisco Estuary","volume":"18","author":"Boyer","year":"2010","journal-title":"Wetl. Ecol. Manag."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1007\/s11273-011-9239-x","article-title":"Evaluation of Perennial Pepperweed (Lepidium latifolium) Management in a Seasonal Wetland in the San Francisco Estuary Prior to Restoration of Tidal Hydrology","volume":"20","author":"Whitcraft","year":"2012","journal-title":"Wetl. Ecol. Manag."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Grewell, B.J., Baye, P.R., and Fiedler, P.L. (2014). Suisun Marsh: Ecological History and Possible Futures, University of California Press."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2247","DOI":"10.1007\/s10530-016-1178-2","article-title":"A Review of 15 Years of Spartina Management in the San Francisco Estuary","volume":"18","author":"Kerr","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biol. Invasions"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1016\/0269-7491(89)90022-5","article-title":"Assessment of the Effects of Herbicide Spray Drift on a Range of Plant Species of Conservation Interest","volume":"59","author":"Marrs","year":"1989","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1641\/0006-3568(2000)050[0053:EAECON]2.3.CO;2","article-title":"Environmental and Economic Costs of Nonindigenous Species in the United States","volume":"50","author":"Pimentel","year":"2000","journal-title":"BioScience"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"583","DOI":"10.1002\/ps.698","article-title":"Pesticide Buffer Zones for the Protection of Wildlife","volume":"59","author":"Burn","year":"2003","journal-title":"Pest Manag. Sci."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Boutin, C. (2015). Encyclopedia of Environmental Management, CRC Press."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"339","DOI":"10.1080\/15481603.2014.926650","article-title":"Recent Applications of Unmanned Aerial Imagery in Natural Resource Management","volume":"51","author":"Shahbazi","year":"2014","journal-title":"GIScience Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"170","DOI":"10.1017\/S1466046615000216","article-title":"Unmanned Aircraft System (UAS) Applications to Land and Natural Resource Management","volume":"17","author":"Johnson","year":"2015","journal-title":"Environ. Pract."},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"369","article-title":"The Future of Unmanned Aerial Systems for Monitoring Natural and Cultural Resources","volume":"15","author":"Madden","year":"2015","journal-title":"Photogramm. Week"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"932","DOI":"10.1007\/s11119-017-9528-3","article-title":"Weed Detection by UAV: Simulation of the Impact of Spectral Mixing in Multispectral Images","volume":"18","author":"Louargant","year":"2017","journal-title":"Precis. Agric."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jeziorska, J. (2019). UAS for Wetland Mapping and Hydrological Modeling. Remote Sens., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11171997"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"550","DOI":"10.1002\/rse2.206","article-title":"Using Drones to Reduce Human Disturbance While Monitoring Breeding Status of an Endangered Raptor","volume":"7","author":"Gallego","year":"2021","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Ecol. Conserv."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1899","DOI":"10.1111\/2041-210X.13912","article-title":"Existing and emerging uses of drones in restoration ecology","volume":"13","author":"Robinson","year":"2022","journal-title":"Methods Ecol. Evol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yallapa, D., Veerangouda, M., Maski, D., Palled, V., and Bheemanna, M. (2017, January 19\u201322). Development and evaluation of drone mounted sprayer for pesticide applications to crops. Proceedings of the GHTC 2017\u2014IEEE Global Humanitarian Technology Conference, San Jose, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/GHTC.2017.8239330"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"473","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-022-05580-5","article-title":"The use of drones for mosquito surveillance and control","volume":"15","author":"Moreno","year":"2022","journal-title":"Parasites Vectors"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"502","DOI":"10.1016\/j.procs.2018.07.063","article-title":"Review on application of drone systems in precision agriculture","volume":"133","author":"Mogili","year":"2018","journal-title":"Procedia Comput. Sci."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"527","DOI":"10.1002\/ps.6052","article-title":"Evaluation of an unmanned aerial vehicle as a new method of pesticide application for almond crop protection","volume":"77","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"Pest Manag. Sci."},{"key":"ref_37","first-page":"18","article-title":"Recent development of unmanned aerial vehicle for plant protection in East Asia","volume":"10","author":"Xionghui","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Agric. Biol. Eng."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"Ahmad Suhaizi, M., Azmi, Y., Norida, M., and Mohamad Saiful, A. (2018, January 7\u20138). Evaluation of the Spraying Dispersion and Uniformity Using Drone in Rice Field Application. Proceedings of the 2018 MSAE Conference, Serdang, Malaysia."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, G., Lan, Y., Yuan, H., Qi, H., Chen, P., Ouyang, F., and Han, Y. (2019). Comparison of Spray Deposition, Control Efficacy on Wheat Aphids and Working Efficiency in the Wheat Field of the Unmanned Aerial Vehicle with Boom Sprayer and Two Conventional Knapsack Sprayers. Appl. Sci., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/app9020218"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Martin, D., Singh, V., Latheef, M.A., and Bagavathiannan, M. (2020). Spray deposition on weeds (Palmer Amarath and Morningglory) from a remotely piloted aerial application system and backpack sprayer. Drones, 4.","DOI":"10.3390\/drones4030059"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Roslim, M.H.M., Juraimi, A.S., Che\u2019ya, N.N., Sulaiman, N., Manaf, M.N.H.A., Ramli, Z., and Motmainna, M. (2021). Using Remote Sensing and an Unmanned Aerial System for Weed Management in Agricultural Crops: A Review. Agronomy, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/agronomy11091809"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, L., Huang, X., Li, W., Yan, K., Han, Y., Zhang, Y., Pawlowski, L., and Lan, Y. (2022). Progress in agricultural unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) applied in China and prospects for Poland. Agriculture, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/agriculture12030397"},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"893","article-title":"Farm Machinery and Power Study on Helicopter Aerial Spraying Under Field Canola Conditions","volume":"29","author":"Eng","year":"2012","journal-title":"Misr J. Agric. Eng."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"970","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2664.2011.01979.x","article-title":"Lessons Learned from Invasive Plant Control Experiments: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"48","author":"Kettenring","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Appl. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1051","DOI":"10.1614\/WS-06-063R1.1","article-title":"Spectral and physiological uniqueness of perennial pepperweed (Lepidium latifolium)","volume":"54","author":"Andrew","year":"2006","journal-title":"Weed Sci."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"260","DOI":"10.1614\/IPSM-09-005.1","article-title":"Predicting the distribution of perennial pepperweed (Lepidium latifolium), San Francisco Bay area, California","volume":"2","author":"Vanderhoof","year":"2009","journal-title":"Invasive Plant Sci. Manag."},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"Young, J.A., Palmquist, D.E., Blank, R.S., and Turner, C.E. (1995, January 6\u20138). Ecology and Control of Perennial Pepperweed (Lepidium latifolium L.). Proceedings of the California Exotic Pest Plant Council Symposium \u201995, Pacific Grove, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"402","DOI":"10.1017\/S0890037X00044006","article-title":"The Ecology and Control of Perennial Pepperweed (Lepidium latifolium L.)","volume":"12","author":"Young","year":"1998","journal-title":"Weed Technol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1614\/WT-05-007R1.1","article-title":"Early season mowing improves the effectiveness of Chlorsulfuron and Glyphosate for control of perennial pepperweed (Lepidium latifolium)","volume":"20","author":"Renz","year":"2006","journal-title":"Weed Technol."},{"key":"ref_50","first-page":"121","article-title":"Perennial Pepperweed","volume":"17","author":"Young","year":"1995","journal-title":"Rangelands"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"627","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1472-4642.2009.00568.x","article-title":"Habitat suitability modeling of an invasive plant with advanced remote sensing data","volume":"15","author":"Andrew","year":"2009","journal-title":"Divers. Distrib."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1007\/s10530-019-02146-y","article-title":"Technology innovation: Advancing capacities for the early detection of and rapid response to invasive species","volume":"22","author":"Martinez","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biol. Invasions"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s10530-019-02156-w","article-title":"The early detection of and rapid response (EDRR) to invasive species: A conceptual framework and federal capacities assessment","volume":"22","author":"Reaser","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biol. Invasions"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"860","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0587.2009.05930.x","article-title":"Effects of Microtopography and Hydrology on Phenology of an Invasive Herb","volume":"32","author":"Andrew","year":"2009","journal-title":"Ecography"},{"key":"ref_55","unstructured":"Buffington, K.J., Thorne, K.M., Takekawa, J.Y., Chappell, S., Swift, T., Feldheim, C., Squellati, A., and Mardock, D.K. (2019). LEAN-Corrected DEM for Suisun Marsh: U.S. Geological Survey Data Release."},{"key":"ref_56","unstructured":"Leading Edge Aerial Technologies (2019). PrecisionVision 35 UAS Brochure V.2, Leading Edge Aerial Technologies."},{"key":"ref_57","unstructured":"DuPont (2023, March 21). DuPontTM Telar\u00ae XP Herbicide. Available online: www.dupont.com."},{"key":"ref_58","unstructured":"Matthews, G.A. (1992). Pesticides Application Methods, Longman Scientific and Technical Publications. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"559","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1061-2971.2004.00373.x","article-title":"Effects of Herbicide on the Invasive Biennial Alliaria Petiolata (Garlic Mustard) and Initial Responses of Native Plants in a Southwestern Ohio Forest","volume":"12","author":"Carlson","year":"2004","journal-title":"Restor. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"379","DOI":"10.1002\/ps.4016","article-title":"Efficacy and Environmental Fate of Imazapyr from Directed Helicopter Applications Targeting Tamarix Species Infestations in Colorado","volume":"72","author":"Douglass","year":"2016","journal-title":"Pest Manag. Sci."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecss.2016.04.010","article-title":"Long-Term Ecological Consequences of Herbicide Treatment to Control the Invasive Grass, Spartina Anglica, in an Australian Saltmarsh","volume":"176","author":"Shimeta","year":"2016","journal-title":"Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14222","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-71202-8","article-title":"Survival and Regeneration Ability of Clonal Common Milkweed (Asclepias syriaca L.) after a Single Herbicide Treatment in Natural Open Sand Grasslands","volume":"10","author":"Bakacsy","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_63","unstructured":"Kudsk, P., and Kristensen, J. (1992, January 17\u201321). Effect of Environmental Factors on Herbicide Performance. Proceedings of the First International Weed Control Congress, Melbourne, Australia."},{"key":"ref_64","unstructured":"American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers (ASABE) (2023, March 14). Spray Nozzle Classification by Droplet Spectra. Available online: www.mssoy.org."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agee.2013.12.017","article-title":"Herbicide Drift Can Affect Plant and Arthropod Communities","volume":"185","author":"Egan","year":"2014","journal-title":"Agric. Ecosyst. Environ."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"453","DOI":"10.1614\/0890-037X(2001)015[0453:DRNEOH]2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Drift-Reducing Nozzle Effects on Herbicide Performance 1","volume":"15","author":"Ramsdale","year":"2001","journal-title":"Weed Technol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, S., Lan, Y., Zhou, Z., Ouyang, F., Wang, G., Huang, X., Deng, X., and Cheng, S. (2020). Effect of droplet size parameters on droplet deposition and drift of aerial spraying by using plant protection UAV. Agronomy, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/agronomy10020195"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1016\/S0167-8809(00)00127-4","article-title":"Drift Control and Buffer Zones for Helicopter Spraying of Bracken (Pteridium Aquilinum)","volume":"79","author":"Robinson","year":"2000","journal-title":"Agric. Ecosyst. Environ."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Grant, S., Perine, J., Abi-Akar, F., Lane, T., Kent, B., Mohler, C., Scott, C., and Ritter, A. (2022). A wind-tunnel assessment of parameters that may impact spray drift during UAV pesticide application. Drones, 6.","DOI":"10.3390\/drones6080204"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biosystemseng.2022.01.016","article-title":"Influence of the downwash airflow distribution characteristics of a plant protection UAV on spray deposit distribution","volume":"216","author":"Zhan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Biosyst. Eng."},{"key":"ref_71","unstructured":"National Oceanic and Atmospheric Association (NOAA) (2023, March 20). Global Surface Summary of the Day\u2014San Francisco Bay Reserve, CA, USA, Available online: https:\/\/www.ncei.noaa.gov\/access\/search\/data-search\/global-summary-of-the-day."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20140754","DOI":"10.1098\/rsbl.2014.0754","article-title":"Approaching Birds with Drones: First Experiments and Ethical Guidelines","volume":"11","author":"Vas","year":"2015","journal-title":"Biol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mulero-P\u00e1zm\u00e1ny, M., Jenni-Eiermann, S., Strebel, N., Sattler, T., Negro, J.J., and Tablado, Z. (2017). Unmanned Aircraft Systems as a New Source of Disturbance for Wildlife: A Systematic Review. PLoS ONE, 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0178448"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.20938\/afo35051056","article-title":"Bird Interactions with Drones, from Individuals to Large Colonies","volume":"35","author":"Lyons","year":"2017","journal-title":"Aust. Field Ornithol."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1139\/juvs-2019-0011","article-title":"A standardized protocol for reporting methods when using drones for wildlife research","volume":"8","author":"Barnas","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Unmanned Veh. Syst."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1017\/S0959270919000364","article-title":"Evaluation of Disturbance Effect on Geese Caused by an Approaching Unmanned Aerial Vehicle","volume":"30","author":"Kallehauge","year":"2020","journal-title":"Bird Conserv. Int."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1139\/dsa-2021-0003","article-title":"An examination of trends in the growing scientific literature on approaching wildlife with drones","volume":"10","author":"Mo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Drone Syst. Appl."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schad, L., and Fischer, J. (2022). Opportunities and risks in the use of drones for studying animal behavior. Methods Ecol. Evol., 1\u20139.","DOI":"10.1111\/2041-210X.13922"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2278","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2015.07.024","article-title":"Bears Show a Physiological but Limited Behavioral Response to Unmanned Aerial Vehicles","volume":"25","author":"Ditmer","year":"2015","journal-title":"Curr. Biol."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brunton, E., Bolin, J., Leon, J., and Burnett, S. (2019). Fright or Flight? Behavioural Responses of Kangaroos to Drone-Based Monitoring. Drones, 3.","DOI":"10.3390\/drones3020041"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1171245","DOI":"10.3389\/fevo.2023.1171245","article-title":"A remote sensing approach to assess the historical invasion of Phragmites australis in a brackish coastal marsh","volume":"11","author":"Hagani","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front. Ecol. Evol."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1017\/wet.2017.89","article-title":"UAV low-altitude remote sensing for precision weed management","volume":"32","author":"Huang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Weed Technol."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1711","DOI":"10.1007\/s11119-021-09808-9","article-title":"Deep learning-based identification system of weeds and crops in strawberry and pea fields for a precision agriculture sprayer","volume":"22","author":"Khan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Precis. Agric."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1010084724526","article-title":"Before, during and after: The Need for Long-Term Monitoring in Invasive Plant Species Management","volume":"1","author":"Blossey","year":"1999","journal-title":"Biol. Invasions"}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/15\/15\/3845\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T20:24:24Z","timestamp":1760127864000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/15\/15\/3845"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,2]]},"references-count":84,"journal-issue":{"issue":"15","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,8]]}},"alternative-id":["rs15153845"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs15153845","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,2]]}}}