{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,3]],"date-time":"2026-02-03T20:43:37Z","timestamp":1770151417833,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":105,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"15","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,3]],"date-time":"2023-08-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1691020800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Private Technical University of Loja","award":["PROY_GMIC_128"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PROY_GMIC_128"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This case study focuses on the area of El Plateado near the city of Loja, Ecuador, where landslides with a high impact on infrastructures require monitoring and control. The main objectives of this work are the characterization of the landslide and the monitoring of its kinematics. Four flights were conducted using a remotely piloted aerial vehicle (RPAS) to capture aerial images that were processed with SfM techniques to generate digital elevation models (DEMs) and orthoimages of high resolution (0.05 m) and sufficient accuracy (below 0.05 m) for subsequent analyses. Thus, the DEM of differences (DoD) and profiles are obtained, but a morphometric analysis is conducted to quantitatively characterize the landslide\u2019s elements and study its evolution. Parameters such as slope, aspect, topographic position index (TPI), terrain roughness index (TRI), and topographic wetness index (TWI) are analyzed. The results show a higher slope and roughness for scarps compared to stable areas and other elements. From TPI, slope break lines have been extracted, which allow the identification of landslide features such as scarps and toe tip. The landslide shows important changes in the landslide body surface, the retraction of the main scarp, and advances of the foot. A general decrease in average slope and TRI and an increase in TWI are also observed due to the landslide evolution and stabilization. The presence of fissures and the infiltration of rainfall water in the unsaturated soil layers, which consist of high-plasticity clays and silts, contribute to the instability. Thus, the study provides insights into the measurement accuracy, identification and characterization of landslide elements, morphometric analysis, landslide evolution, and the relationship with geotechnical factors that contribute to a better understanding of landslides. A higher frequency of the RPAS surveys and quality of geotechnical and meteorological data are required to improve the instability analysis together with a major automation of the GIS procedures.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs15153860","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,3]],"date-time":"2023-08-03T11:13:06Z","timestamp":1691061186000},"page":"3860","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":10,"title":["Characterization and Analysis of Landslide Evolution in Intramountain Areas in Loja (Ecuador) Using RPAS Photogrammetric Products"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3457-0381","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Belizario A.","family":"Z\u00e1rate","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department Civil Engineering, Private Technical University of Loja, Loja AP. 1101608, Ecuador"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1271-3839","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rachid","family":"El Hamdouni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil Engineering, ETSICCP, University of Granada, Campus Fuentenueva s\/n, 18071 Granada, Spain"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6822-775X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tom\u00e1s","family":"Fern\u00e1ndez del Castillo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Cartographic, Geodetic and Photogrammetric Engineering, University of Ja\u00e9n, Campus de las Lagunillas s\/n, 23071 Ja\u00e9n, Spain"},{"name":"Centre for Advanced Studies in Earth Sciences, Energy and Environmental, University of Ja\u00e9n, Campus de las Lagunillas s\/n, 23071 Ja\u00e9n, Spain"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s10346-017-0928-2","article-title":"Monthly Publication of Landslides: Journal of International Consortium on Landslides (ICL)","volume":"15","author":"Sassa","year":"2018","journal-title":"Landslides"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1839","DOI":"10.1007\/s10346-017-0858-z","article-title":"Participants in the Fourth World Landslide Forum and Call for ICL Members, Supporters, and Associates","volume":"14","author":"Sassa","year":"2017","journal-title":"Landslides"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"513","DOI":"10.1007\/s10346-020-01588-z","article-title":"More than Just Technology for Landslide Disaster Mitigation: Signatories to The Kyoto Landslide Commitment 2020\u2014No. 1","volume":"18","author":"Konagai","year":"2021","journal-title":"Landslides"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yavuz, M., Koutalakis, P., Diaconu, D.C., Gkiatas, G., Zaimes, G.N., Tufekcioglu, M., and Marinescu, M. (2023). Identification of Streamside Landslides with the Use of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) in Greece, Romania, and Turkey. Remote Sens., 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs15041006"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1186\/s40677-017-0073-1","article-title":"Spaceborne, UAV and Ground-Based Remote Sensing Techniques for Landslide Mapping, Monitoring and Early Warning","volume":"4","author":"Casagli","year":"2017","journal-title":"Geoenviron. Disasters"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2259","DOI":"10.3390\/rs2092259","article-title":"Landslide Catastrophes and Disaster Risk Reduction: A GIS Framework for Landslide Prevention and Management","volume":"2","author":"Assilzadeh","year":"2010","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Casagli, N., Tofani, V., Morelli, S., Frodella, W., Ciampalini, A., Raspini, F., and Intrieri, E. (2017). Workshop on World Landslide Forum, Springer."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lollino, G., Manconi, A., Guzzetti, F., Culshaw, M., Bobrowsky, P., and Luino, F. (2015). Engineering Geology for Society and Territory. Volume 5: Urban Geology, Sustainable Planning and Landscape Exploitation, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-09048-1"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103740","DOI":"10.1016\/j.landurbplan.2019.103740","article-title":"Integration of Landslide Hazard into Urban Planning across Europe","volume":"196","author":"Mateos","year":"2020","journal-title":"Landsc. Urban Plan."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/19475705.2017.1315619","article-title":"Use of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles in Monitoring Application and Management of Natural Hazards","volume":"8","author":"Giordan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Geomat. Nat. Hazards Risk"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"629","DOI":"10.1007\/s10346-015-0598-x","article-title":"Integration of LiDAR Data for the Assessment of Activity in Diachronic Landslides: A Case Study in the Betic Cordillera (Spain)","volume":"13","author":"Palenzuela","year":"2016","journal-title":"Landslides"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1975","DOI":"10.1007\/s10346-017-0851-6","article-title":"Landslide-Hazard Mapping through Multi-Technique Activity Assessment: An Example from the Betic Cordillera (Southern Spain)","volume":"14","author":"Palenzuela","year":"2017","journal-title":"Landslides"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kalantar, B., Ueda, N., Saeidi, V., Ahmadi, K., Halin, A.A., and Shabani, F. (2020). Landslide Susceptibility Mapping: Machine and Ensemble Learning Based on Remote Sensing Big Data. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12111737"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Karagianni, A., Lazos, I., and Chatzipetros, A. (2019). Remote Sensing Techniques in Disaster Management: Amynteon Mine Landslides, Greece, Springer International Publishing.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-05330-7_9"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, P., Wei, Y., Wang, Q., Chen, Y., and Xie, J. (2020). Research on Post-Earthquake Landslide Extraction Algorithm Based on Improved U-Net Model. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12050894"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1080\/02723646.2019.1630232","article-title":"Urban Landslide Monitoring by Combined Use of Multiple Methodologies\u2014A Case Study on Sv. Anton Town, Slovakia","volume":"41","author":"Greif","year":"2020","journal-title":"Phys. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"131","article-title":"Monitoring of Landslides with Mass Market GPS: An Alternative Low Cost Solution","volume":"40","author":"Cina","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci. ISPRS Arch."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"226","DOI":"10.1179\/003962611X12894696205145","article-title":"Accuracy of GPS Rapid Static Positioning: Application to Koyulhisar Landslide, Central Turkey","volume":"43","author":"Hastaoglu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Surv. Rev."},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"22","article-title":"Millimeter-Accuracy GPS Landslide Monitoring Using Precise Point Positioning with Single Receiver Phase Ambiguity (PPP-SRPA) Resolution: A Case Study in Puerto Rico","volume":"3","author":"Wang","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Geod. Sci."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.18537\/mskn.02.02.02","article-title":"Monitoreo de Movimientos de Ladera En El Sector de San Pedro de Vilcabamba Mediante Procedimientos GPS","volume":"2","year":"2011","journal-title":"Maskana"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2785","DOI":"10.3390\/rs122785","article-title":"Application of a Terrestrial Laser Scanner (TLS) to the Study of the S\u00e9","volume":"2","year":"2010","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2016.11.009","article-title":"An Evaluation of the Effectiveness of Low-Cost UAVs and Structure from Motion for Geomorphic Change Detection","volume":"278","author":"Cook","year":"2017","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Giordan, D., Manconi, A., Tannant, D.D., and Allasia, P. (2015, January 26\u201331). UAV: Low-Cost Remote Sensing for High-Resolution Investigation of Landslides. Proceedings of the 2015 IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium (IGARSS), Milan, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/IGARSS.2015.7327042"},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"276","article-title":"Use of Low-Cost UAV Photogrammetry to Analyze the Accuracy of a Digital Elevation Model in a Case Study","volume":"91","year":"2016","journal-title":"Meas. J. Int. Meas. Confed."},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"241","article-title":"Use of a Light UAV and Photogrammetric Techniques to Study the Evolution of a Landslide in Ja\u00e9n (Southern Spain)","volume":"40","author":"Cardenal","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci. ISPRS Arch."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fern\u00e1ndez, T., P\u00e9rez, J.L., Cardenal, J., G\u00f3mez, J.M., Colomo, C., and Delgado, J. (2016). Analysis of Landslide Evolution Affecting Olive Groves Using UAV and Photogrammetric Techniques. Remote Sens., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs8100837"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cardenal, J., Fern\u00e1ndez, T., P\u00e9rez-Garc\u00eda, J.L., and G\u00f3mez-L\u00f3pez, J.M. (2019). Measurement of Road Surface Deformation Using Images Captured from UAVs. Remote Sens., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11121507"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1167","DOI":"10.1007\/s10346-019-01167-x","article-title":"The Cost of Rapid and Haphazard Urbanization: Lessons Learned from the Freetown Landslide Disaster","volume":"16","author":"Cui","year":"2019","journal-title":"Landslides"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"669","DOI":"10.4028\/www.scientific.net\/AMM.567.669","article-title":"Assessing UAV Landslide Mapping Using Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) for Landslide Mapping Activity","volume":"567","author":"Mokhtar","year":"2014","journal-title":"Appl. Mech. Mater."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.5194\/isprsarchives-XXXVIII-1-C22-161-2011","article-title":"Open Source Image-Processing Tools for Low-Cost Uav-Based Landslide Investigations","volume":"38","author":"Niethammer","year":"2012","journal-title":"ISPRS-Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1269","DOI":"10.5194\/nhess-16-1269-2016","article-title":"Quantification and Analysis of Geomorphic Processes on a Recultivated Iron Ore Mine on the Italian Island of Elba Using Long-Term Ground-Based Lidar and Photogrammetric SfM Data by a UAV","volume":"16","author":"Haas","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"336","DOI":"10.1080\/23754931.2020.1782254","article-title":"Impacts of Abrupt Terrain Changes and Grass Cover on Vertical Accuracy of UAS-SfM Derived Elevation Models","volume":"6","author":"Thomas","year":"2020","journal-title":"Pap. Appl. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1201","DOI":"10.1007\/s10346-019-01160-4","article-title":"Characterizing the Catastrophic 2017 Mud Creek Landslide, California, Using Repeat Structure-from-Motion (SfM) Photogrammetry","volume":"16","author":"Warrick","year":"2019","journal-title":"Landslides"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"359","DOI":"10.5194\/esurf-4-359-2016","article-title":"Image-Based Surface Reconstruction in Geomorphometry-Merits, Limits and Developments","volume":"4","author":"Eltner","year":"2016","journal-title":"Earth Surf. Dyn."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2014.04.025","article-title":"High-Resolution Monitoring OfHimalayan Glacier Dynamics Using Unmanned Aerial Vehicles","volume":"150","author":"Immerzeel","year":"2014","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"593","DOI":"10.1007\/s10346-017-0922-8","article-title":"Acquiring High-Resolution Topography and Performing Spatial Analysis of Loess Landslides by Using Low-Cost UAVs","volume":"15","author":"Hu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Landslides"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1007\/s12145-017-0291-9","article-title":"Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Based Remote Sensing Method for Monitoring a Steep Mountainous Slope in the Three Gorges Reservoir, China","volume":"10","author":"Huang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Earth Sci. Inform."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s12518-015-0165-0","article-title":"UAV Monitoring and Documentation of a Large Landslide","volume":"8","author":"Lindner","year":"2016","journal-title":"Appl. Geomat."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"743","DOI":"10.1007\/s10346-016-0723-5","article-title":"The Combined Use of PSInSAR and UAV Photogrammetry Techniques for the Analysis of the Kinematics of a Coastal Landslide Affecting an Urban Area (SE Spain)","volume":"14","author":"Mateos","year":"2017","journal-title":"Landslides"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"895","DOI":"10.5194\/isprs-archives-XLI-B5-895-2016","article-title":"Accuracy Assessment of a Uav-Based Landslide Monitoring System","volume":"41","author":"Peppa","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci. ISPRS Arch."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"395","DOI":"10.1007\/s10346-016-0759-6","article-title":"Monitoring the Poto\u0161ka Planina Landslide (NW Slovenia) Using UAV Photogrammetry and Tachymetric Measurements","volume":"14","author":"Peternel","year":"2017","journal-title":"Landslides"},{"key":"ref_42","first-page":"276","article-title":"The Surface Modelling Based on UAV Photogrammetry and Qualitative Estimation","volume":"73","author":"Ruzgiene","year":"2016","journal-title":"Meas. J. Int. Meas. Confed."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enggeo.2011.03.012","article-title":"UAV-Based Remote Sensing of the Super-Sauze Landslide: Evaluation and Results","volume":"128","author":"Niethammer","year":"2011","journal-title":"Eng. Geol."},{"key":"ref_44","first-page":"221","article-title":"Assessment of Photogrammetric Mapping Accuracy Based on Variation Ground Control Points Number Using Unmanned Aerial Vehicle","volume":"98","year":"2017","journal-title":"Meas. J. Int. Meas. Confed."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Al-Rawabdeh, A., Moussa, A., Foroutan, M., El-Sheimy, N., and Habib, A. (2017). Time Series UAV Image-Based Point Clouds for Landslide Progression Evaluation Applications. Sensors, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/s17102378"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fern\u00e1ndez, T., P\u00e9rez, J.L., Colomo, C., Cardenal, J., Delgado, J., Palenzuela, J.A., Irigaray, C., and Chac\u00f3n, J. (2017). Assessment of the Evolution of a Landslide Using Digital Photogrammetry and LiDAR Techniques in the Alpujarras Region (Granada, Southeastern Spain). Geosciences, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/geosciences7020032"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1177\/0309133313515293","article-title":"Mapping Landslide Displacements Using Structure from Motion (SfM) and Image Correlation of Multi-Temporal UAV Photography","volume":"38","author":"Lucieer","year":"2014","journal-title":"Prog. Phys. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2238","DOI":"10.3390\/rs5052238","article-title":"Remote Sensing and Geodetic Measurements for Volcanic Slope Monitoring: Surface Variations Measured at Northern Flank of La Fossa Cone (Vulcano Island, Italy)","volume":"5","author":"Pesci","year":"2013","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7700","DOI":"10.1080\/01431161.2020.1792577","article-title":"Interpretation and Use of Geomorphometry in Remote Sensing: A Guide and Review of Integrated Applications","volume":"41","author":"Franklin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1127\/zfg_suppl\/2016\/0328","article-title":"Topographic Wetness Index and Terrain Ruggedness Index in Geomorphic Characterisation of Landslide Terrains, on Examples from the Sudetes, SW Poland","volume":"61","author":"Michniewicz","year":"2017","journal-title":"Z. Geomorphol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1007\/s11069-010-9695-2","article-title":"Geomorphic Features Extraction from High-Resolution Topography: Landslide Crowns and Bank Erosion","volume":"61","author":"Tarolli","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2143","DOI":"10.5194\/nhess-17-2143-2017","article-title":"Brief Communication: 3D landslide motion from cross correlation of UAV-derived morphological attributes","volume":"17","author":"Peppa","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chud\u00fd, F., Sl\u00e1mov\u00e1, M., Toma\u0161t\u00edk, J., Proke\u0161ov\u00e1, R., and Mokro\u0161, M. (2019). Identification of Micro-Scale Landforms of Landslides Using Precise Digital Elevation Models. Geosciences, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/geosciences9030117"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mauri, L., Straffelini, E., Cucchiaro, S., and Tarolli, P. (2021). UAV-SFM 4D Mapping of Landslides Activated in a Steep Terraced Agricultural Area. J. Agric. Eng., 52.","DOI":"10.4081\/jae.2021.1130"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1971","DOI":"10.1007\/s10064-017-1216-z","article-title":"Estimation of Empirical Rainfall Thresholds for Landslide Triggering Using Partial Duration Series and Their Relation with Climatic Cycles. An Application in Southern Ecuador","volume":"78","author":"Soto","year":"2017","journal-title":"Bull. Eng. Geol. Environ."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bravo-L\u00f3pez, E., Fern\u00e1ndez Del Castillo, T., Sellers, C., and Delgado-Garc\u00eda, J. (2023). Analysis of Conditioning Factors in Cuenca, Ecuador, for Landslide Susceptibility Maps Generation Employing Machine Learning Methods. Land, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/land12061135"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Z\u00e1rate, B., El Hamdouni, R., and Fern\u00e1ndez, T. (2021). GNSS and RPAS Integration Techniques for Studying Landslide Dynamics: Application to the Areas of Victoria and Colinas Lojanas, (Loja, Ecuador). Remote Sens., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13173496"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1972","DOI":"10.1002\/esp.5358","article-title":"Disproportionate and Chronic Sediment Delivery from a Fluvially Controlled, Deep-Seated Landslide in Aotearoa New Zealand","volume":"47","author":"McColl","year":"2022","journal-title":"Earth Surf. Process. Landf."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3113","DOI":"10.1080\/01431161.2017.1285085","article-title":"Generation of Accurate Digital Elevation Models from UAV Acquired Low Percentage Overlapping Images","volume":"38","author":"Ajayi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nhres.2021.09.001","article-title":"UAV Technique to Localize Landslide Susceptibility and Mitigation Proposal: A Case of Rinchending Goenpa Landslide in Bhutan","volume":"1","author":"Tempa","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards Res."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"An, K., Kim, S., Chae, T., and Park, D. (2018). Developing an Accessible Landslide Susceptibility Model Using Open-Source Resources. Sustainability, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/su10020293"},{"key":"ref_62","first-page":"1","article-title":"Landslide GIS-Modelling with QGIS Software","volume":"2020","author":"Liashenko","year":"2020","journal-title":"XIV Int. Sci. Conf. Monit. Geol. Process. Ecol. Cond. Environ."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1117","DOI":"10.1007\/s11069-019-03852-5","article-title":"Natural Hazard Assessment and Mapping Using Remote Sensing and QGIS Tools for Mumbai City, India","volume":"100","author":"Sansare","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards"},{"key":"ref_64","first-page":"17","article-title":"Sentinel-2 for High Resolution Mapping of Slope-Based Vegetation Indices Using Machine Learning by SAGA GIS","volume":"22","author":"Lemenkova","year":"2020","journal-title":"Transylv. Rev. Syst. Ecol. Res."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2455","DOI":"10.1007\/s10346-020-01428-0","article-title":"Characterization of Displacement and Internal Structure of Landslides from Multitemporal UAV and ERT Imaging","volume":"17","author":"Samodra","year":"2020","journal-title":"Landslides"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1016\/j.proeng.2017.05.009","article-title":"The Specifities of Landslides Danger Assessment Accepted in Eurocode","volume":"189","author":"Shubina","year":"2017","journal-title":"Procedia Eng."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1477","DOI":"10.1007\/s11069-013-0759-y","article-title":"Susceptibility Evaluation and Mapping of China\u2019s Landslides Based on Multi-Source Data","volume":"69","author":"Liu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1080\/19475705.2016.1225228","article-title":"Detailed Geological Mapping in Mountain Areas Using an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle: Application to the Rodoretto Valley, NW Italian Alps","volume":"8","author":"Piras","year":"2017","journal-title":"Geomat. Nat. Hazards Risk"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105229","DOI":"10.1016\/j.catena.2021.105229","article-title":"Influence of Successive Landslides on Topographic Changes Revealed by Multitemporal High-Resolution UAS-Based DEM","volume":"202","author":"Yang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Catena"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"750","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTARS.2014.2349953","article-title":"Estimating the Contribution of Loose Deposits to Potential Landslides over Wenchuan Earthquake Zone, China","volume":"8","author":"Zeng","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Appl. Earth Obs. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolmodel.2011.12.007","article-title":"How Can Statistical Models Help to Determine Driving Factors of Landslides?","volume":"239","author":"Vorpahl","year":"2012","journal-title":"Ecol. Modell."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"236","DOI":"10.1016\/j.catena.2013.08.006","article-title":"Evaluation of Prediction Capability of the Artificial Neural Networks for Mapping Landslide Susceptibility in the Turbolo River Catchment (Northern Calabria, Italy)","volume":"113","author":"Conforti","year":"2014","journal-title":"Catena"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, J., Zhu, W., Cheng, Y., and Li, Z. (2021). Landslide Detection in the Linzhi-ya\u2019an Section along the Sichuan-Tibet Railway Based on Insar and Hot Spot Analysis Methods. Remote Sens., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13183566"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100082","DOI":"10.1016\/j.qsa.2023.100082","article-title":"Landform Classification and Geomorphological Mapping of the Chota Nagpur Plateau, India","volume":"10","author":"Ghosh","year":"2023","journal-title":"Quat. Sci. Adv."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108490","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2022.108490","article-title":"Geomorphology Geoenvironmental Conditioning of Landsliding in River Valleys of Lowland Regions and Its Significance in Landslide Susceptibility Assessment: A Case Study in the Lower Vistula Valley, Northern Poland","volume":"419","author":"Grabowski","year":"2022","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_76","first-page":"755","article-title":"The Egyptian Journal of Remote Sensing and Space Sciences GIS-Based Landform and LULC Classifications in the Sub-Himalayan Kaljani Basin: Special Reference to 2016 Flood","volume":"24","author":"Roy","year":"2021","journal-title":"Egypt. J. Remote Sens. Sp. Sci."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2016.10.003","article-title":"Unmanned Aerial Systems and DSM Matching for Rock Glacier Monitoring","volume":"127","author":"Forlani","year":"2017","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s12517-015-2094-y","article-title":"GIS-Based Landslide Spatial Modeling in Ganzhou City, China","volume":"9","author":"Hong","year":"2016","journal-title":"Arab. J. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2018.10.013","article-title":"Point Cloud Filtering on UAV Based Point Cloud","volume":"133","author":"Zeybek","year":"2019","journal-title":"Meas. J. Int. Meas. Confed."},{"key":"ref_80","unstructured":"Borkowski, A. (2017). Advancing Culture of Living with Landslides. Adv. Cult. Living Landslides."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mauri, L., Straffelini, E., Cucchiaro, S., and Tarolli, P. (2021, January 19\u201330). RPAS-SfM 4D Mapping of Shallow Landslides Activated in a Steep Terraced Vineyard. Proceedings of the EGU General Assembly Conference Abstracts, Virtual.","DOI":"10.5194\/egusphere-egu21-2368"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3468","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2011.08.010","article-title":"Remote Sensing of Environment Comparison of Different Vegetation Indices for the Remote Assessment of Green Leaf Area Index of Crops","volume":"115","author":"Gitelson","year":"2011","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"140588","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2020.140588","article-title":"The Influence of Climate Change and Canopy Disturbances on Landslide Susceptibility in Headwater Catchments","volume":"742","author":"Scheidl","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.5194\/isprs-archives-XLII-4-W9-201-2018","article-title":"Geospatial Approach for Landslide Activity Assessment and Mapping Based on Vegetation Anomalies","volume":"42","author":"Salleh","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci.-ISPRS Arch."},{"key":"ref_85","unstructured":"(2000). Standard Test Method for Determination of Water (Moisture) Content of Soil by the Microwave Oven Heating (Standard No. ASTM International D4643)."},{"key":"ref_86","unstructured":"(2018). Standard Test Methods for Liquid Limit, Plastic Limit, and Plasticity Index of Soils (Standard No. ASTM International D4318-17)."},{"key":"ref_87","unstructured":"(2007). Particle Size Analysis of Soils (Standard No. ASTM International D422-63)."},{"key":"ref_88","unstructured":"(2017). Standard Practice for Classification of Soils for Engineering Purposes (Unified Soil Classification System) 1 (Standard No. ASTM International D2487\u20130)."},{"key":"ref_89","unstructured":"(2011). Standard Test Method for Direct Shear Test of Soils under Consolidated Drained Conditions (Standard No. West Conshohocken, PA, USA)."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"176","DOI":"10.3390\/geosciences4030176","article-title":"GIS-Based Landslide Susceptibility Mapping on the Peloponnese Peninsula, Greece","volume":"4","author":"Chalkias","year":"2014","journal-title":"Geosciences"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1736","DOI":"10.3390\/rs70201736","article-title":"Time Series Analysis of Landslide Dynamics Using an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV)","volume":"7","author":"Turner","year":"2015","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.5194\/isprsarchives-XXXVIII-1-C22-201-2011","article-title":"Surveying a Landslide in a Road Embankment Using Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Photogrammetry","volume":"38","author":"Carvajal","year":"2012","journal-title":"ISPRS-Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"715","DOI":"10.5194\/nhess-15-715-2015","article-title":"Multi-temporal LiDAR-DTMs as a tool for modelling a complex landslide: A case study in the Rotolon catchment (eastern Italian Alps)","volume":"15","author":"Bossi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"973","DOI":"10.1002\/1096-9837(200008)25:9<973::AID-ESP111>3.0.CO;2-Y","article-title":"Monitoring and modelling morphological change in a braided gravel-bed river using high resolution GPS-based survey","volume":"25","author":"Brasington","year":"2000","journal-title":"Earth Surf. Proc. Land."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1002\/esp.1886","article-title":"Accounting for uncertainty in DEMs from repeat topographic surveys: Improved sediment budgets","volume":"35","author":"Wheaton","year":"2010","journal-title":"Earth Surf. Proc. Land."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2009.09.033","article-title":"Landslide Dynamics from High-Resolution Aerial Photographs: A Case Study from the Western Carpathians, Slovakia","volume":"115","year":"2010","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1007\/s10064-005-0023-0","article-title":"Landslide hazard and risk zonation\u2014Why is it still so difficult?","volume":"65","author":"Soeters","year":"2006","journal-title":"Bull. Eng. Geol. Environ."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fern\u00e1ndez, T., P\u00e9rez-Garc\u00eda, J.L., G\u00f3mez-L\u00f3pez, J.M., Cardenal, J., Moya, F., and Delgado, J. (2021). Multitemporal Landslide Inventory and Activity Analysis by Means of Aerial Photogrammetry and LiDAR Techniques in an Area of Southern Spain. Remote Sens., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13112110"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"435","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2008.04.027","article-title":"Kinematics of a Landslide Derived from Archival Photogrammetry and GPS Data","volume":"102","author":"Baldi","year":"2008","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-31310-3_19","article-title":"Simulating Infiltration Processes into Fractured and Swelling Soils as Triggering Factors of Landslides","volume":"3","author":"Galeandro","year":"2013","journal-title":"Landslide Sci. Pract. Spat. Anal. Model."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1341","DOI":"10.1007\/s10346-019-01191-x","article-title":"Engineering Geomorphological Investigation of the Kasavu Landslide, Viti Levu, Fiji","volume":"16","author":"Ram","year":"2019","journal-title":"Landslides"},{"key":"ref_102","unstructured":"Guzzetti, F. (2003, January 14\u201316). Landslide Hazard Assessment and Risk Evaluation: Limits and Prospectives. Proceedings of the 4th EGS Plinius Conference, Mallorca, Spain."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Palenzuela, J.A., Soto, J., and Irigaray, C. (2020). Characteristics of Rainfall Events Triggering Landslides in Two Climatologically Dierent Areas: Southern Ecuador and Southern Spain. Hydrology, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/hydrology7030045"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2041","DOI":"10.1007\/s10346-020-01420-8","article-title":"Soil Moisture Information Can Improve Shallow Landslide Forecasting Using the Hydrometeorological Threshold Approach","volume":"17","author":"Marino","year":"2020","journal-title":"Landslides"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mirus, B.B., Morphew, M.D., and Smith, J.B. (2018). Developing Hydro-Meteorological Thresholds for Shallow Landslide Initiation and Early Warning. Water, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/w10091274"}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/15\/15\/3860\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T20:25:13Z","timestamp":1760127913000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/15\/15\/3860"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,3]]},"references-count":105,"journal-issue":{"issue":"15","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,8]]}},"alternative-id":["rs15153860"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs15153860","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,3]]}}}