{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,23]],"date-time":"2026-03-23T09:30:54Z","timestamp":1774258254682,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":73,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"16","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,10]],"date-time":"2023-08-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1691625600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Key scientific and technological projects of Heilongjiang province","award":["2021ZXJ05A05"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2021ZXJ05A05"]}]},{"name":"Key scientific and technological projects of Heilongjiang province","award":["42171303"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42171303"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["2021ZXJ05A05"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2021ZXJ05A05"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["42171303"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42171303"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Land-use maps are thematic materials reflecting the current situation, geographical diversity, and classification of land use and are an important scientific foundation that can assist decision-makers in adjusting land-use structures, agricultural zoning, regional planning, and territorial improvement according to local conditions. Spectral reflectance and radar signatures of time series are important in distinguishing land-use types. However, their impact on the accuracy of land-use mapping and decision making remains unclear. Also, the many spatial and temporal heterogeneous landscapes in southern Xinjiang limit the accuracy of existing land-use classification products. Therefore, our objective herein is to develop reliable land-use products for the highly heterogeneous environment of the southern Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region using the freely available public Sentinel image datasets. Specifically, to determine the effect of temporal features on classification, several classification scenarios with different temporal features were developed using multi-temporal Sentinel-1, Sentinel-2, and terrain data in order to assess the importance, contribution, and impact of different temporal features (spectral and radar) on land-use classification models and determine the optimal time for land-use classification. Furthermore, to determine the optimal method and parameters suitable for local land-use classification research, we evaluated and compared the performance of three decision-tree-related classifiers (classification and regression tree, random forest, and gradient tree boost) with respect to classifying land use. Yielding the highest average overall accuracy (95%), kappa (95%), and F1 score (98%), we determined that the gradient tree boost model was the most suitable for land-use classification. Of the four individual periods, the image features in autumn (25 September to 5 November) were the most accurate for all three classifiers in relation to identifying land-use classes. The results also show that the inclusion of multi-temporal image features consistently improves the classification of land-use products, with pre-summer (28 May\u201320 June) images providing the most significant improvement (the average OA, kappa, and F1 score of all the classifiers were improved by 6%, 7%, and 3%, respectively) and fall images the least (the average OA, kappa, and F1 score of all the classifiers were improved by 2%, 3%, and 2%, respectively). Overall, these analyses of how classifiers and image features affect land-use maps provide a reference for similar land-use classifications in highly heterogeneous areas. Moreover, these products are designed to describe the highly heterogeneous environments in the study area, for example, identifying pear trees that affect local economic development, and allow for the accurate mapping of alpine wetlands in the northwest.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs15163958","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,10]],"date-time":"2023-08-10T10:24:47Z","timestamp":1691663087000},"page":"3958","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":13,"title":["Land-Use Mapping with Multi-Temporal Sentinel Images Based on Google Earth Engine in Southern Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, China"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Riqiang","family":"Chen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Information Science and Technology, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Quantitative Remote Sensing in Agriculture of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Information Technology Research Center, Beijing Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences, Beijing 100097, China"},{"name":"Engineering Research Center for Forestry-Oriented Intelligent Information Processing of National Forestry and Grassland Administration, Beijing 100083, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8506-7295","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hao","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Quantitative Remote Sensing in Agriculture of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Information Technology Research Center, Beijing Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences, Beijing 100097, China"}]},{"given":"Guijun","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Quantitative Remote Sensing in Agriculture of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Information Technology Research Center, Beijing Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences, Beijing 100097, China"}]},{"given":"Yang","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Lab of Smart Agriculture System, Ministry of Education, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, China"}]},{"given":"Chengjian","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Information Science and Technology, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Quantitative Remote Sensing in Agriculture of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Information Technology Research Center, Beijing Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences, Beijing 100097, China"}]},{"given":"Huiling","family":"Long","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Quantitative Remote Sensing in Agriculture of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Information Technology Research Center, Beijing Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences, Beijing 100097, China"}]},{"given":"Haifeng","family":"Xu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Information Science and Technology, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China"}]},{"given":"Yang","family":"Meng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Quantitative Remote Sensing in Agriculture of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Information Technology Research Center, Beijing Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences, Beijing 100097, China"},{"name":"College of Agriculture, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3312-6200","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Haikuan","family":"Feng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Quantitative Remote Sensing in Agriculture of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Information Technology Research Center, Beijing Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences, Beijing 100097, China"},{"name":"College of Agriculture, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"503","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2018.07.017","article-title":"Prediction of land use changes based on Land Change Modeler and attribution of changes in the water balance of Ganga basin to land use change using the SWAT model","volume":"644","author":"Anand","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. 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