{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,26]],"date-time":"2026-03-26T00:34:14Z","timestamp":1774485254691,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":106,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"16","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,11]],"date-time":"2023-08-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1691712000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100007917","name":"U.S. Department of Agriculture\u2014Agricultural Research Service and National Science Foundation (NSF)","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["58-3050-9-012"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["58-3050-9-012"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100007917","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Physically based hydrologic models require significant effort and extensive information for development, calibration, and validation. The study explored the use of the random forest regression (RFR), a supervised machine learning (ML) model, as an alternative to the physically based Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) for predicting streamflow in the Rio Grande Headwaters near Del Norte, a snowmelt-dominated mountainous watershed of the Upper Rio Grande Basin. Remotely sensed data were used for the random forest machine learning analysis (RFML) and RStudio for data processing and synthesizing. The RFML model outperformed the SWAT model in accuracy and demonstrated its capability in predicting streamflow in this region. We implemented a customized approach to the RFR model to assess the model\u2019s performance for three training periods, across 1991\u20132010, 1996\u20132010, and 2001\u20132010; the results indicated that the model\u2019s accuracy improved with longer training periods, implying that the model trained on a more extended period is better able to capture the parameters\u2019 variability and reproduce streamflow data more accurately. The variable importance (i.e., IncNodePurity) measure of the RFML model revealed that the snow depth and the minimum temperature were consistently the top two predictors across all training periods. The paper also evaluated how well the SWAT model performs in reproducing streamflow data of the watershed with a conventional approach. The SWAT model needed more time and data to set up and calibrate, delivering acceptable performance in annual mean streamflow simulation, with satisfactory index of agreement (d), coefficient of determination (R2), and percent bias (PBIAS) values, but monthly simulation warrants further exploration and model adjustments. The study recommends exploring snowmelt runoff hydrologic processes, dust-driven sublimation effects, and more detailed topographic input parameters to update the SWAT snowmelt routine for better monthly flow estimation. The results provide a critical analysis for enhancing streamflow prediction, which is valuable for further research and water resource management, including snowmelt-driven semi-arid regions.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs15163999","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,11]],"date-time":"2023-08-11T12:10:30Z","timestamp":1691755830000},"page":"3999","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":50,"title":["Exploring Random Forest Machine Learning and Remote Sensing Data for Streamflow Prediction: An Alternative Approach to a Process-Based Hydrologic Modeling in a Snowmelt-Driven Watershed"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Khandaker Iftekharul","family":"Islam","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Water Informatics, Water Science and Management, New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, NM 88001, USA"},{"name":"Department of Geography, New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, NM 88003, USA"},{"name":"USDA Southwest Climate Hub, Jornada Experimental Range, Las Cruces, NM 88003, USA"},{"name":"NM Geospatial Solution, Rio Rancho, NM 87124, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9964-3177","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Emile","family":"Elias","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"USDA Southwest Climate Hub, Jornada Experimental Range, Las Cruces, NM 88003, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2097-9589","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kenneth C.","family":"Carroll","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Water Informatics, Water Science and Management, New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, NM 88001, USA"},{"name":"Department of Plant and Environmental Science, New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, NM 88003, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3622-6226","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Christopher","family":"Brown","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Water Informatics, Water Science and Management, New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, NM 88001, USA"},{"name":"Department of Geography, New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, NM 88003, USA"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105953","DOI":"10.1016\/j.catena.2021.105953","article-title":"A Comparison of Performance of SWAT and Machine Learning Models for Predicting Sediment Load in a Forested Basin, Northern Spain","volume":"212","year":"2022","journal-title":"Catena"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejrh.2017.10.002","article-title":"Comparison of Hydrological Models for the Assessment of Water Resources in a Data-Scarce Region, the Upper Blue Nile River Basin","volume":"14","author":"Tegegne","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. 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