{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,24]],"date-time":"2026-10-24T01:51:10Z","timestamp":1792806670937,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":48,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"16","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,18]],"date-time":"2023-08-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1692316800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000001","name":"U.S. National Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["OCE 2224354"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["OCE 2224354"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000001","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000001","name":"U.S. National Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["PNRA18_00263-B2"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PNRA18_00263-B2"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000001","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation","award":["OCE 2224354"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["OCE 2224354"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/006wxqw41","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"name":"Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation","award":["PNRA18_00263-B2"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PNRA18_00263-B2"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/006wxqw41","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"name":"Italian Ministry of University and Research","award":["OCE 2224354"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["OCE 2224354"]}]},{"name":"Italian Ministry of University and Research","award":["PNRA18_00263-B2"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PNRA18_00263-B2"]}]},{"name":"Institute of Theoretical Physics, ETH Zurich","award":["OCE 2224354"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["OCE 2224354"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/02xtbq882","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"name":"Institute of Theoretical Physics, ETH Zurich","award":["PNRA18_00263-B2"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PNRA18_00263-B2"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/02xtbq882","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Detecting the impacts of natural and anthropogenic disturbances that cause declines in organisms or changes in community composition has long been a focus of ecology. However, a tradeoff often exists between the spatial extent over which relevant data can be collected, and the resolution of those data. Recent advances in underwater photogrammetry, as well as computer vision and machine learning tools that employ artificial intelligence (AI), offer potential solutions with which to resolve this tradeoff. Here, we coupled a rigorous photogrammetric survey method with novel AI-assisted image segmentation software in order to quantify the impact of a coral bleaching event on a tropical reef, both at an ecologically meaningful spatial scale and with high spatial resolution. In addition to outlining our workflow, we highlight three key results: (1) dramatic changes in the three-dimensional surface areas of live and dead coral, as well as the ratio of live to dead colonies before and after bleaching; (2) a size-dependent pattern of mortality in bleached corals, where the largest corals were disproportionately affected, and (3) a significantly greater decline in the surface area of live coral, as revealed by our approximation of the 3D shape compared to the more standard planar area (2D) approach. The technique of photogrammetry allows us to turn 2D images into approximate 3D models in a flexible and efficient way. Increasing the resolution, accuracy, spatial extent, and efficiency with which we can quantify effects of disturbances will improve our ability to understand the ecological consequences that cascade from small to large scales, as well as allow more informed decisions to be made regarding the mitigation of undesired impacts.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs15164077","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,18]],"date-time":"2023-08-18T09:13:44Z","timestamp":1692350024000},"page":"4077","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":31,"title":["Quantifying the Loss of Coral from a Bleaching Event Using Underwater Photogrammetry and AI-Assisted Image Segmentation"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0021-3087","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kai L.","family":"Kopecky","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ecology, Evolution, and Marine 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USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6660-3291","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alessandro","family":"Capra","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Engineering \u201cEnzo Ferrari\u201d, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Via Pietro Vivarelli 10, 41125 Modena, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6591-4802","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Cristina","family":"Castagnetti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Engineering \u201cEnzo Ferrari\u201d, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Via Pietro Vivarelli 10, 41125 Modena, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5001-8266","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Paolo","family":"Rossi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Engineering \u201cEnzo Ferrari\u201d, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Via Pietro Vivarelli 10, 41125 Modena, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Armin","family":"Gruen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Theoretical Physics, ETH Zurich, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8324-4830","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fabian","family":"Neyer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Terradata AG, 8152 Glattpark, Switzerland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alessandro","family":"Muntoni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Visual Computing Lab ISTI-CNR, 56124 Pisa, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Federico","family":"Ponchio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Visual Computing Lab ISTI-CNR, 56124 Pisa, 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