{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,3]],"date-time":"2026-04-03T05:01:09Z","timestamp":1775192469464,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":123,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"16","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,19]],"date-time":"2023-08-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1692403200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"CONAHCYT Pronace","award":["2017-2018-01-A3-S-77965"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2017-2018-01-A3-S-77965"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The Gulf of California (GC) is the only interior sea in the Eastern Pacific Ocean and is the most important fishing area in the northwestern region of the Mexican Pacific. This study focuses on the oceanographic variability of the GC, including its southern portion, which is an area with a high flow of energy and exchange of properties with the Pacific Ocean (PO), in order to determine its role in physical\u2013biological cycles and climate change. The purpose of this work is to analyze the sea surface temperature (SST) and chlorophyll a concentration (Chl-a) during the period from 1998\u20132022 as indicators of long-term physical and biological processes, oceanographic variability, and primary production in the GC. In total, 513 subareas in the GC were analyzed, and a cluster analysis was applied to identify similar areas in terms of SST and Chl-a via the K-means method and using the silhouette coefficient (&gt;0.5) as a metric to validate the clusters obtained. The trends of the time series of both variables were analyzed, and a fast Fourier analysis was performed to evaluate cycles in the series. A descriptive analysis of the SST and Chl-a series showed that the SST decreased from south to north. Six bioregions were identified using a combined of both SST and Chl-a data. The spectral analysis of the SST showed that the main frequencies in the six bioregions were annual and interannual (3\u20137 years), and the frequencies of their variations were associated with basin-level weather events, such as El Ni\u00f1o and La Ni\u00f1a. The SST in the GC showed a heating trend at an annual rate of ~0.036 \u00b0C (~0.73 \u00b0C in 20 years) and a decrease in Chl-a at an annual rate of ~0.012 mg\/m3 (~0.25 mg\/m3 in 20 years), with potential consequences for communities and ecosystems. Additionally, cycles of 10\u201313 and 15\u201320 years were identified, and the 10\u201313-year cycle explained almost 40\u201350% of the signal power in some regions. Moreover, mesoscale features (eddies and filaments) were identified along the GC, and they were mainly associated with the clusters of the SST. All these spatial and temporal variabilities induce conditions that generate different habitats and could explain the high biodiversity of the GC. If the warming trend of the SST and the decreasing trend of the Chl-a continue in the long term, concerns could be raised, as they can have important effects on the dynamics of this important marine ecosystem, including habitat loss for numerous native species, declines in the catches of the main fishery resources, and, consequently, support for the arrival of harmful invasive species.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs15164088","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,21]],"date-time":"2023-08-21T01:46:56Z","timestamp":1692582416000},"page":"4088","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":25,"title":["Long-Term Variability in Sea Surface Temperature and Chlorophyll a Concentration in the Gulf of California"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Juana","family":"L\u00f3pez Mart\u00ednez","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Centro de Investigaciones Biol\u00f3gicas del Noroeste S.C. Unidad Sonora, Km. 2.35 Camino al Tular, Estero de Bacochibampo, Guaymas 85465, Sonora, Mexico"}]},{"given":"Edgardo Basilio","family":"Farach Espinoza","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centro de Investigaciones Biol\u00f3gicas del Noroeste S.C. Unidad Sonora, Km. 2.35 Camino al Tular, Estero de Bacochibampo, Guaymas 85465, Sonora, Mexico"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4746-6265","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hugo","family":"Herrera Cervantes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centro de Investigaci\u00f3n Cient\u00edfica y de Educaci\u00f3n Superior de Ensenada, Unidad La Paz, Calle Miraflores No. 334 e\/Muleg\u00e9 y La Paz, La Paz 23050, Baja California Sur, Mexico"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5996-2405","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ricardo","family":"Garc\u00eda Morales","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CONACYT, Unidad Nayarit del Centro de Investigaciones Biol\u00f3gicas del Noroeste S.C. (UNCIBNOR), Calle Dos No. 23, Cd. del Conocimiento, Cd. Industrial, Av. Emilio M. Gonz\u00e1lez, Sin Referencia, Tepic 63173, Nayarit, Mexico"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pocean.2007.01.013","article-title":"The Gulf of California: Review of ecosystem status and sustainability challenges","volume":"73","author":"Brusca","year":"2007","journal-title":"Prog. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.1016\/j.earscirev.2016.09.015","article-title":"Environmental status of the Gulf of California: A review of responses to climate change and climate variability","volume":"162","author":"Carballo","year":"2016","journal-title":"Earth-Sci. 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