{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,27]],"date-time":"2026-03-27T10:47:56Z","timestamp":1774608476622,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":44,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"17","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,30]],"date-time":"2023-08-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1693353600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["42071447"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42071447"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["LJKZ1295"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["LJKZ1295"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Scientific Research Fund of Liaoning Province","award":["42071447"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42071447"]}]},{"name":"Scientific Research Fund of Liaoning Province","award":["LJKZ1295"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["LJKZ1295"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Craters on the lunar surface are the most direct method for the study of geological processes and are of great significance to the study of lunar evolution. In order to fill the research gap on small craters (diameter less than 3 m), we focus on the small craters around the moving path of the Yutu-2 lunar rover and carry out a 3D reconstruction and geometrical morphology analysis on them. First, a self-calibration model with multiple feature constraints is used to calibrate the navigation camera and obtain the internal and external parameters. Then, the sequence images with overlapping regions from neighboring stations are used to obtain the precise position of the rover through the bundle adjustment (BA) method. After that, a cross-scale cost aggregation for a stereo matching network is proposed to obtain a parallax map, which can further obtain 3D point clouds of the lunar surface. Finally, the indexes of the craters are extracted (diameter D, depth d, and depth\u2013diameter ratio dr), and the different indicators are fitted and analyzed. The results suggest that CscaNet has an anomaly percentage value of 1.73% in the KITTI2015 dataset, and an EPE of 0.74 px in the SceneFlow dataset, both of which are superior to GC-Net, DispNet, and PSMnet, and have higher reconstruction accuracy. The correlation between D and d is high and exhibits a positive correlation, while the correlation between D and dr is low. The geometric morphology expressions of small craters fitted by using D and d are significantly different from the expressions proposed by other scholars for large craters. This study provides a priori knowledge for the subsequent Von Karmen crater survey mission in the SPA Basin.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs15174251","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,30]],"date-time":"2023-08-30T10:09:49Z","timestamp":1693390189000},"page":"4251","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":77,"title":["Three-Dimensional Reconstruction and Geometric Morphology Analysis of Lunar Small Craters within the Patrol Range of the Yutu-2 Rover"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3822-5243","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xinchao","family":"Xu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Geomatics, Liaoning Technical University, Fuxin 123000, China"}]},{"given":"Xiaotian","family":"Fu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Geomatics, Liaoning Technical University, Fuxin 123000, China"}]},{"given":"Hanguang","family":"Zhao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Geomatics, Liaoning Technical University, Fuxin 123000, China"}]},{"given":"Mingyue","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Geomatics, Liaoning Technical University, Fuxin 123000, China"}]},{"given":"Aigong","family":"Xu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Geomatics, Liaoning Technical University, Fuxin 123000, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4076-2101","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Youqing","family":"Ma","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Aerospace Information Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"26","article-title":"A breccia is a rock that is composed of other rock fragments. On the lunar surface, the main process for fragmentation is meteorite impacts","volume":"8","author":"Breccia","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci."},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"34","article-title":"A Hidden Lunar Mascon Under the South Part of Von K\u00e1rm\u00e1n Crater","volume":"5","author":"Ping","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Deep. Space Explor."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Head, J.W. (1978, January 13\u201317). Origin of central peaks and peak rings: Evidence from peak-ring basins on Moon, Mars, and Mercury. Proceedings of the 9th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference, Houston, TX, USA."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1504","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1195050","article-title":"Global distribution of large lunar craters: Implications for resurfacing and impactor populations","volume":"329","author":"Head","year":"2010","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Kadish, S.J., Fassett, C.I., Head, J.W., Smith, D.E., Zuber, M.T., Neumann, G.A., and Mazarico, E. (2011, January 7\u201311). A global catalog of large lunar craters (\u226520 km) from the Lunar Orbiter Laser Altimeter. Proceedings of the 42nd Annual Lunar and Planetary Science Conference, The Woodlands, TX, USA."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"McDowell, J. (2023, June 24). A Merge of a Digital Version of the List of Lunar Craters from Andersson and Whitaker with the List from the USGS Site. Available online: http:\/\/www.planet4589.org\/astro\/lunar\/CratersS."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"236","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pss.2011.09.003","article-title":"LU60645GT and MA132843GT catalogues of Lunar and Martian craters developed using a Crater Shape-based interpolation crater detection algorithm for topography data","volume":"60","author":"Mazarico","year":"2012","journal-title":"Planet. Space Sci."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"871","DOI":"10.1029\/2018JE005592","article-title":"A New Global Database of Lunar Craters >1\u20132 km: 1. Crater Locations and Sizes, Comparisons With Published Databases, and Global Analysis","volume":"124","author":"Robbins","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Planets"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1016\/j.icarus.2014.02.022","article-title":"The variability of crater identification among expert and community crater analysts","volume":"234","author":"Robbins","year":"2014","journal-title":"Icarus"},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"512","article-title":"The Spatial Pattern of Lunar Craters on a Global Scale","volume":"42","author":"Wang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Geomat. Inf. Sci. Wuhan Univ."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Hou, L. (2013). Spatial Distribution and Morphology Characteristics Quantitative Description of the Lunar Craters. [Master\u2019s Thesis, Northeast Normal University]."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Li, K. (2013). Study on Small-Scale Lunar Craters\u2019 Morphology and Degradation. [Ph.D. Thesis, Wuhan University]."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Zhao, D. (2022). Intelligent Identification and Spatial Distribution Analysis of Small Craters in Lunar Landing Area. [Master\u2019s Thesis, Jilin University]."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"541","DOI":"10.1007\/s11631-019-00356-8","article-title":"Shadow\u2013highlight feature matching automatic small crater recognition using high-resolution digital orthophoto map from Chang\u2019E Missions","volume":"38","author":"Zuo","year":"2019","journal-title":"Acta Geochim."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hu, Y., Xiao, J., Liu, L., Zhang, L., and Wang, Y. (2021). Detection of Small Craters via Semantic Segmenting Lunar Point Clouds Using Deep Learning Network. Remote Sens., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13091826"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2018.2852717","article-title":"Coarse-to-fine extraction of small-scale lunar craters from the CCD images of the Chang\u2019E lunar orbiters","volume":"57","author":"Kang","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"4600712","article-title":"CraterDANet: A Convolutional Neural Network for Small-Scale Crater Detection via Synthetic-to-Real Domain Adaptation","volume":"60","author":"Yang","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Heiken, G., Vaniman, D., and French, B.M. (1991). Lunar Sourcebook\u2014A User\u2019s Guide to the Moon, Cambridge University Press."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"166","DOI":"10.1038\/213166a0","article-title":"Crater Diameter\u2013Depth Relationship from Ranger Lunar Photographs","volume":"213","year":"1967","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00054060","article-title":"Basin-ring spacing on the Moon, Mercury, and Mars","volume":"39","author":"Pike","year":"1987","journal-title":"Earth Moon Planets"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.1016\/0012-821X(74)90088-0","article-title":"Craters on Earth, Moon, and Mars: Multivariate classification and mode of origin","volume":"22","author":"Pike","year":"1974","journal-title":"Earth Planet. Sci. Lett."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Cintala, M.J., Head, J.W., and Mutch, T.A. (1976, January 15\u201319). Martian crater depth\/diameter relationships-Comparison with the moon and Mercury. Proceedings of the 7th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference Proceedings, Houston, TX, USA."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"A65","DOI":"10.1029\/JB087iS01p00A65","article-title":"Volumetric analysis of complex lunar craters: Implications for basin ring formation","volume":"87","author":"Hale","year":"1982","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth"},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Croft, S.K. (1978, January 13\u201317). Lunar crater volumes-Interpretation by models of cratering and upper crustal structure. Proceedings of the 9th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference Proceedings, Houston, TX, USA."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"284","DOI":"10.1007\/s12583-010-0092-2","article-title":"Analysis of depth-diameter relationship of craters around oceanus procellarum area","volume":"21","author":"Hu","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2017.04.004","article-title":"Self calibration of the stereo vision system of the Chang\u2019e-3 lunar rover based on the bundle block adjustment","volume":"128","author":"Zhang","year":"2017","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xu, X., Liu, M., Peng, S., Ma, Y., Zhao, H., and Xu, A. (2022). An In-Orbit Stereo Navigation Camera Self-Calibration Method for Planetary Rovers with Multiple Constraints. Remote Sens., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14020402"},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"437","article-title":"A calibration method for navigation cameras\u2019 parameters of planetary detector after landing","volume":"51","author":"Yan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Acta Geod. Cartogr. Sin."},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"452","article-title":"Research on visual localization method of lunar rover","volume":"44","author":"Wang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sci. China Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"250","article-title":"Integrated INS and Vision-Based Orientation Determination and Positioning of CE-3 Lunar Rover","volume":"33","author":"Liu","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Spacecr. TT C Technol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2790","DOI":"10.1360\/TB-2021-1273","article-title":"Precise visual localization and terrain reconstruction for China\u2019s Zhurong Mars rover on orbit","volume":"67","author":"Ma","year":"2022","journal-title":"Chin. Sci. Bull."},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"6","article-title":"Improved Dynamic Programming in the Lunar Terrain Reconstruction","volume":"40","author":"Li","year":"2013","journal-title":"Opto-Electron. Eng."},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"24","article-title":"Stereo matching algorithm for lunar rover vision system","volume":"41","author":"Cao","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Jilin Univ. (Eng. Technol. Ed.)"},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"176","article-title":"Stereo Matching Algorithm for Lunar Rover","volume":"159","author":"Qi","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Nanjing Univ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_35","first-page":"77","article-title":"Adaptive Markov random field model for dense matchingof deep space stereo images","volume":"18","author":"Peng","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"2287","article-title":"Stereo matching by training a convolutional neural network to compare image patches","volume":"17","author":"Zbontar","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Mach. Learn. Res."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mayer, N., Ilg, E., Hausser, P., Fischer, P., Cremers, D., Dosovitskiy, A., and Brox, T. (2016, January 27\u201330). A large dataset to train convolutional networks for disparity, optical flow, and scene flow estimation. Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, Las Vegas, NV, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/CVPR.2016.438"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kendall, A., Martirosyan, H., Dasgupta, S., Henry, P., Kennedy, R., Bachrach, A., and Bry, A. (2017, January 21\u201326). End-to-end learning of geometry and context for deep stereo regression. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Computer Vision, Honolulu, HI, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCV.2017.17"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chang, J.R., and Chen, Y.S. (2018, January 18\u201323). Pyramid stereo matching network. Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, Salt Lake City, UT, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/CVPR.2018.00567"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1111\/phor.12309","article-title":"A precise visual localisation method for the chinese chang\u2019e-4 Yutu-2 rover","volume":"35","author":"Ma","year":"2020","journal-title":"Photogramm. Rec."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"346","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cviu.2007.09.014","article-title":"Speeded-up robust features (SURF)","volume":"110","author":"Bay","year":"2008","journal-title":"Comput. Vis. Image Underst."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Menze, M., and Geiger, A. (2015, January 7\u201312). Object scene flow for autonomous vehicles. Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, Boston, MA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/CVPR.2015.7298925"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xu, B., Xu, Y., Yang, X., Jia, W., and Guo, Y. (2021, January 20\u201325). Bilateral grid learning for stereo matching networks. Proceedings of the IEEE\/CVF Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, Nashville, TN, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/CVPR46437.2021.01231"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4405","DOI":"10.1029\/1998GL900177","article-title":"Geometric properties of Martian craters: Preliminary results from the Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter","volume":"25","author":"Garvin","year":"1998","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/15\/17\/4251\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T20:42:29Z","timestamp":1760128949000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/15\/17\/4251"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,30]]},"references-count":44,"journal-issue":{"issue":"17","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,9]]}},"alternative-id":["rs15174251"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs15174251","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,30]]}}}