{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T21:11:11Z","timestamp":1760130671330,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":50,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"17","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,31]],"date-time":"2023-08-31T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1693440000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC)","award":["61971379","129000194432301","226-2023-00049"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["61971379","129000194432301","226-2023-00049"]}]},{"name":"Program of Innovation 2030 on Smart Ocean, Zhejiang University","award":["61971379","129000194432301","226-2023-00049"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["61971379","129000194432301","226-2023-00049"]}]},{"name":"Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities","award":["61971379","129000194432301","226-2023-00049"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["61971379","129000194432301","226-2023-00049"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Passive bistatic radar (PBR)-based moving target detection (MTD) has benefited greatly from multi-frequency (MF) integration, which can effectively improve the detection capability of weak targets. However, with the increase in the coherent processing interval (CPI) and carrier-frequency separation, Doppler spread will appear in the range-Doppler maps (RDMs) over different frequency bands, which severely limits the processing gain of MF integration. In this paper, a novel MTD algorithm is proposed to achieve both long-time integration and quasi-coherent MF integration. More specifically, the proposed method consists of two main steps, where a modified Radon\u2013Fourier transform (RFT), termed as MF-based RFT (MF-RFT), is, firstly, used to eliminate the Doppler spread via designing a sequential of MF-based Doppler filter banks. Following the MF-RFT, a phase-compensation-based method is also developed to further remove the residual phase errors. This method involves formulating an optimization problem based on the minimum-entropy criterion and employing a particle swarm optimization (PSO) algorithm to solve it, after which quasi-coherent MF integration can be achieved with robustness. Both numerical results and field test results based on digital video broadcasting-satellite (DVB-S) signals demonstrate that the proposed algorithm outperforms the existing methods in the scenario of weak MTD.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs15174309","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,1]],"date-time":"2023-09-01T08:45:31Z","timestamp":1693557931000},"page":"4309","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["A Quasi-Coherent Detection Method Based on Radon\u2013Fourier Transform Using Multi-Frequency-Based Passive Bistatic Radar"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0024-7789","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Junjie","family":"Li","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"The Institute of Marine Electronic and Intelligent System, Ocean College, Zhejiang University, Zhoushan 316021, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Chunyi","family":"Song","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Institute of Marine Electronic and Intelligent System, Ocean College, Zhejiang University, Zhoushan 316021, China"},{"name":"The Engineering Research Center of Oceanic Sensing Technology and Equipment, Ministry of Education, Zhoushan 316021, China"},{"name":"Donghai Laboratory, Zhoushan 316021, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2279-0632","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zhiwei","family":"Xu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Institute of Marine Electronic and Intelligent System, Ocean College, Zhejiang University, Zhoushan 316021, China"},{"name":"The Engineering Research Center of Oceanic Sensing Technology and Equipment, Ministry of Education, Zhoushan 316021, China"},{"name":"Donghai Laboratory, Zhoushan 316021, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,31]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1109\/MAES.2022.3221685","article-title":"Passive Radar: Past, Present, and Future Challenges","volume":"38","author":"Colone","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Aerosp. Electron. Syst. Mag."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"617","DOI":"10.1049\/iet-rsn.2017.0419","article-title":"Maximum-likelihood angle estimator for multi-channel FM-radio-based passive coherent location","volume":"12","author":"Park","year":"2018","journal-title":"IET Radar Sonar Navig."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1109\/MAES.2012.6373911","article-title":"Velocity measurement and traffic monitoring using a GSM passive radar demonstrator","volume":"27","author":"Krysik","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE Aerosp. Electron. Syst. Mag."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114","DOI":"10.1049\/iet-rsn.2013.0162","article-title":"Design and performance evaluation of a mature FM\/DAB\/DVB-T multi-illuminator passive radar system","volume":"8","author":"Edrich","year":"2014","journal-title":"IET Radar Sonar Navig."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2116","DOI":"10.1109\/TSP.2012.2236324","article-title":"DVB-T Passive Radar Signal Processing","volume":"61","author":"Palmer","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cristallini, D., Pisciottano, I., and Kuschel, H. (2018, January 27\u201330). Multi-Band Passive Radar Imaging Using Satellite Illumination. Proceedings of the 2018 International Conference on Radar (RADAR), Brisbane, Australia.","DOI":"10.1109\/RADAR.2018.8557260"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1109\/TAES.2017.2739900","article-title":"Maritime Moving Target Indication Using Passive GNSS-Based Bistatic Radar","volume":"54","author":"Ma","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Aerosp. Electron. Syst."},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"1","article-title":"5G Network-Based Passive Radar","volume":"60","author":"Abratkiewicz","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1109\/MAES.2013.6506827","article-title":"Multifrequency integration in FM radio-based passive bistatic radar. Part I: Target detection","volume":"28","author":"Colone","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Aerosp. Electron. Syst. Mag."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1049\/iet-rsn.2015.0104","article-title":"Non-coherent adaptive detection in passive radar exploiting polarimetric and frequency diversity","volume":"10","author":"Colone","year":"2016","journal-title":"IET Radar Sonar Navig."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Martelli, T., Colone, F., Tilli, E., and Di Lallo, A. (2016). Multi-Frequency Target Detection Techniques for DVB-T Based Passive Radar Sensors. Sensors, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/s16101594"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2900","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2020.3047525","article-title":"A DVB-S-Based Multichannel Passive Radar System for Vehicle Detection","volume":"9","author":"Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Santi, F., Blasone, G.P., Pastina, D., Colone, F., and Lombardo, P. (2021). Parasitic Surveillance Potentialities Based on a GEO-SAR Illuminator. Remote Sens., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13234817"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ummenhofer, M., Lavau, L.C., Cristallini, D., and O\u2019Hagan, D. (2020, January 28\u201330). UAV Micro-Doppler Signature Analysis Using DVB-S Based Passive Radar. Proceedings of the 2020 IEEE International Radar Conference (RADAR), Washington, DC, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/RADAR42522.2020.9114747"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1479","DOI":"10.1049\/iet-rsn.2018.5622","article-title":"Maritime target imaging via simultaneous DVB-T and DVB-S passive ISAR","volume":"13","author":"Pisciottano","year":"2019","journal-title":"IET Radar Sonar Navig."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Filippini, F., Cabrera, O., Bongioanni, C., Colone, F., and Lombardo, P. (2021, January 14\u201317). DVB-S based Passive Radar for Short Range Security Application. Proceedings of the 2021 IEEE Radar Conference (RadarConf21), Atlanta, GA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/RadarConf2147009.2021.9455242"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Almod\u00f3var-Hern\u00e1ndez, A., Mata-Moya, D., Jarabo-Amores, M.P., Rey-Maestre, N., and Benito-Ortiz, M. (2023). Motion Compensation for Long Integration Times and DoA Processing in Passive Radars. Remote Sens., 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs15041031"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brisken, S., Moscadelli, M., Seidel, V., and Schwark, C. (2017, January 8\u201312). Passive radar imaging using DVB-S2. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE Radar Conference (RadarConf), Seattle, WA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/RADAR.2017.7944264"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5894","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2019.2902938","article-title":"Joint Detection and Localization of Vessels at Sea With a GNSS-Based Multistatic Radar","volume":"57","author":"Santi","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1049\/rsn2.12025","article-title":"Long-time coherent integration based on intra-partition range-Doppler processing for passive bistatic radar","volume":"15","author":"Zuo","year":"2021","journal-title":"IET Radar Sonar Navig."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Perry, R.P., DiPietro, R.C., and Fante, R.L. (2007, January 17\u201320). Coherent Integration With Range Migration Using Keystone Formatting. Proceedings of the 2007 IEEE Radar Conference, Waltham, MA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/RADAR.2007.374333"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.1109\/7.250410","article-title":"Search radar detection and track with the Hough transform. I. System concept","volume":"30","author":"Carlson","year":"1994","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Aerosp. Electron. Syst."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1184","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTARS.2020.3037200","article-title":"A Hybrid Integration Method for Moving Target Detection with GNSS-Based Passive Radar","volume":"14","author":"He","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Appl. Earth Obs. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4201","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2012.2189220","article-title":"ISAR Imaging of Targets With Complex Motion Based on Discrete Chirp Fourier Transform for Cubic Chirps","volume":"50","author":"Wu","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3122","DOI":"10.1109\/78.875469","article-title":"Discrete chirp-Fourier transform and its application to chirp rate estimation","volume":"48","author":"Xia","year":"2000","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2800","DOI":"10.1109\/TSP.2012.2190730","article-title":"Sparse Detection in the Chirplet Transform: Application to FMCW Radar Signals","volume":"60","author":"Millioz","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"822","DOI":"10.1049\/iet-rsn.2016.0432","article-title":"A Multi-Frame Fractional Fourier Transform Technique for Moving Target Detection with Space-Based Passive Radar","volume":"11","author":"Li","year":"2016","journal-title":"IET Radar Sonar Navig."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30458","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2020.2972735","article-title":"Long-Time Coherent Integration for Frequency Hopping Pulse Signal via Phase Compensation","volume":"8","author":"Chen","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Richards, M.A. (2005). Fundamentals of Radar Signal Processing, McGraw-Hill. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1186","DOI":"10.1109\/TAES.2011.5751251","article-title":"Radon-Fourier Transform for Radar Target Detection, I: Generalized Doppler Filter Bank","volume":"47","author":"Xu","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Aerosp. Electron. Syst."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6190","DOI":"10.1109\/TSP.2012.2217137","article-title":"Radar Maneuvering Target Motion Estimation Based on Generalized Radon-Fourier Transform","volume":"60","author":"Xu","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"939","DOI":"10.1109\/TSP.2013.2297682","article-title":"Maneuvering Target Detection via Radon-Fractional Fourier Transform-Based Long-Time Coherent Integration","volume":"62","author":"Chen","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zeng, H.C., Chen, J., Wang, P.B., Yang, W., and Liu, W. (2018). 2-D Coherent Integration Processing and Detecting of Aircrafts Using GNSS-Based Passive Radar. Remote Sens., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10071164"},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"1","article-title":"A Modified Radon Fourier Transform for GNSS-Based Bistatic Radar Target Detection","volume":"19","author":"Zhou","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Geosci. Remote. Sens. Lett."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"661","DOI":"10.1109\/LSP.2008.2002724","article-title":"Upper Bound of Coherent Integration Loss for Symmetrically Distributed Phase Noise","volume":"15","author":"Yu","year":"2008","journal-title":"IEEE Signal Process. Lett."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3786","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2017.2680321","article-title":"Evaluation of Direct Signal Suppression for Passive Radar","volume":"55","author":"Garry","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Griffiths, H., and Baker, C. (2017). An Introduction to Passive Radar, ARTECH House."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"806","DOI":"10.1109\/LGRS.2012.2224317","article-title":"A CFAR Detection Algorithm for Generalized Gamma Distributed Background in High-Resolution SAR Images","volume":"10","author":"Qin","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"512","DOI":"10.1109\/LGRS.2006.878446","article-title":"SAR Minimum-Entropy Autofocus Using an Adaptive-Order Polynomial Model","volume":"3","author":"Wang","year":"2006","journal-title":"IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Kennedy, J., and Eberhart, R. (December, January 27). Particle swarm optimization. Proceedings of the ICNN\u201995-International Conference on Neural Networks, Perth, Australia."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6416","DOI":"10.1109\/TSP.2021.3120522","article-title":"A Quasi-Coherent Detection Framework for Mobile Multi-Agent Networks","volume":"69","author":"Gu","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"798","DOI":"10.1109\/7.220931","article-title":"Biparametric CFAR procedures for lognormal clutter","volume":"29","author":"Guida","year":"1993","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Aerosp. Electron. Syst."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1475","DOI":"10.1109\/TAES.2015.130407","article-title":"Batches algorithm for passive radar: A theoretical analysis","volume":"51","author":"Moscardini","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Aerosp. Electron. Syst."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1109\/TEVC.2013.2296151","article-title":"Adaptive Multiobjective Particle Swarm Optimization Based on Parallel Cell Coordinate System","volume":"19","author":"Hu","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Evol. Comput."},{"key":"ref_45","first-page":"1","article-title":"A Phase-Derived Velocity Measurement Method Based on the Generalized Radon\u2013Fourier Transform With a Low SNR","volume":"60","author":"Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"LyngSat (2023, July 01). Apstar 6C at 134.0E. 2019. Available online: https:\/\/www.lyngsat.com\/Apstar-6C.html."},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"The European Telecommunications Standards Institute (2023, July 01). Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB); Framing Structure, Channel Coding and Modulation for 11\/12 GHz Satellite Service. Technical Report ETSI EN-300-421-v1.1.2; 1997. Available online: https:\/\/www.etsi.org\/deliver\/etsi_en\/300400_300499\/300421\/01.01.02_60\/en_300421v010102p.pdf."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"853","DOI":"10.1049\/rsn2.12061","article-title":"Multi-carrier and multi-polarimetric model based adaptive target detector for passive radar systems","volume":"15","author":"Filippini","year":"2021","journal-title":"IET Radar Sonar Navig."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1049\/ip-rsn:20045082","article-title":"Passive coherent location radar systems. Part 1: Performance prediction","volume":"152","author":"Griffiths","year":"2005","journal-title":"IEE Proc. Radar Sonar Navig."},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"Skolnik, M. (2008). Radar Handbook, McGraw-Hill. [3rd ed.]."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/15\/17\/4309\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T20:44:24Z","timestamp":1760129064000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/15\/17\/4309"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,31]]},"references-count":50,"journal-issue":{"issue":"17","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,9]]}},"alternative-id":["rs15174309"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs15174309","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2072-4292"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,31]]}}}