{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,22]],"date-time":"2026-07-22T05:20:16Z","timestamp":1784697616025,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":55,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"18","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,13]],"date-time":"2023-09-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1694563200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["42025501"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42025501"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["4212200198"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["4212200198"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["41875053"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41875053"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["61827901"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["61827901"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["42122036"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42122036"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["2023LASW-A01"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2023LASW-A01"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["2017YFC1501601"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2017YFC1501601"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["2018YFC1506404"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2018YFC1506404"]}]},{"name":"Open Grants of the State Key Laboratory of Severe Weather","award":["42025501"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42025501"]}]},{"name":"Open Grants of the State Key Laboratory of Severe Weather","award":["4212200198"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["4212200198"]}]},{"name":"Open Grants of the State Key Laboratory of Severe Weather","award":["41875053"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41875053"]}]},{"name":"Open Grants of the State Key Laboratory of Severe Weather","award":["61827901"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["61827901"]}]},{"name":"Open Grants of the State Key Laboratory of Severe Weather","award":["42122036"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42122036"]}]},{"name":"Open Grants of the State Key Laboratory of Severe Weather","award":["2023LASW-A01"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2023LASW-A01"]}]},{"name":"Open Grants of the State Key Laboratory of Severe Weather","award":["2017YFC1501601"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2017YFC1501601"]}]},{"name":"Open Grants of the State Key Laboratory of Severe Weather","award":["2018YFC1506404"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2018YFC1506404"]}]},{"name":"National Key Research and Development Program of China","award":["42025501"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42025501"]}]},{"name":"National Key Research and Development Program of China","award":["4212200198"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["4212200198"]}]},{"name":"National Key Research and Development Program of China","award":["41875053"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41875053"]}]},{"name":"National Key Research and Development Program of China","award":["61827901"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["61827901"]}]},{"name":"National Key Research and Development Program of China","award":["42122036"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42122036"]}]},{"name":"National Key Research and Development Program of China","award":["2023LASW-A01"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2023LASW-A01"]}]},{"name":"National Key Research and Development Program of China","award":["2017YFC1501601"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2017YFC1501601"]}]},{"name":"National Key Research and Development Program of China","award":["2018YFC1506404"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2018YFC1506404"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>An hourly rainfall of 201.9 mm fell in Zhengzhou on 20 July 2021, breaking the hourly rainfall record of mainland China and causing severe urban flooding and human casualties. This observation-based study investigates the associated convective-scale and mesoscale dynamics and microphysical processes using disdrometer and polarimetric radar observations aided by retrievals from the Variational Doppler Radar Analysis System. The synoptic flow forcing brought abundant moisture from the oceans and converged at Zhengzhou; then, the extreme rainfall was produced by a slow-moving convective storm that persisted throughout the hour over Zhengzhou. Unusually high concentrations of raindrops of all sizes (showing combined properties of maritime and continental convection) are revealed by the disdrometer data, whereas the polarimetric radar data suggest that both ice-based and warm rain processes were important contributors to the total rainfall. High precipitation efficiency was achieved with an erect updraft at the low levels, whereas enhanced easterly inflows kept the storm moving slowly. The interaction between convective-scale and mesoscale dynamics and microphysical processes within the favorable synoptic conditions led to this extremely heavy rainfall.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs15184511","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,14]],"date-time":"2023-09-14T10:00:23Z","timestamp":1694685623000},"page":"4511","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["The Dynamics and Microphysical Characteristics of the Convection Producing the Record-Breaking Hourly Precipitation on 20 July 2021 in Zhengzhou, China"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Kun","family":"Zhao","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Mesoscale Severe Weather\/Ministry of Education, and School of Atmospheric Sciences, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4495-3677","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xin","family":"Xu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Mesoscale Severe Weather\/Ministry of Education, and School of Atmospheric Sciences, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1976-3238","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ming","family":"Xue","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Mesoscale Severe Weather\/Ministry of Education, and School of Atmospheric Sciences, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China"},{"name":"Center for Analysis and Prediction of Storms, School of Meteorology, University of Oklahoma, Norman, OK 73072, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zhe-Min","family":"Tan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Mesoscale Severe Weather\/Ministry of Education, and School of Atmospheric Sciences, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3998-9074","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hao","family":"Huang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Mesoscale Severe Weather\/Ministry of Education, and School of Atmospheric Sciences, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-5050-9135","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ang","family":"Zhou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Mesoscale Severe Weather\/Ministry of Education, and School of Atmospheric Sciences, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xueqi","family":"Fan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Mesoscale Severe Weather\/Ministry of Education, and School of Atmospheric Sciences, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Qiqing","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Mesoscale Severe Weather\/Ministry of Education, and School of Atmospheric Sciences, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chenli","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Mesoscale Severe Weather\/Ministry of Education, and School of Atmospheric Sciences, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Juan","family":"Fang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Mesoscale Severe Weather\/Ministry of Education, and School of Atmospheric Sciences, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Wen-Chau","family":"Lee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Earth Observing Laboratory, National Center for Atmospheric Research, Boulder, CO 80301, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Qinghong","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences, School of Physics, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0186-3137","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fan","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Severe Weather, Chinese Academy of Meteorological Sciences, Beijing 100081, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gang","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Nanjing Joint Institute for Atmospheric Sciences, Nanjing 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