{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T02:30:50Z","timestamp":1760149850005,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":48,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"19","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,25]],"date-time":"2023-09-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1695600000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100018540","name":"Gdynia Maritime University","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["WN\/2023\/PZ\/05"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["WN\/2023\/PZ\/05"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100018540","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In recent years, the most popular methods for determining coastline course are geodetic, satellite, and tacheometric techniques. None of the above-mentioned measurement methods allows marking out the shoreline both in an accurate way and with high coverage of the terrain with surveys. For this reason, intensive works are currently underway to find alternative solutions that could accurately, extensively, and quickly determine coastline course. Based on a review of the literature regarding shoreline measurements, it can be concluded that the photogrammetric method, based on low-altitude images taken by an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV), has the greatest potential. The aim of this publication is to present and validate a method for determining coastline course based on low-altitude photos taken by a drone. Shoreline measurements were carried out using the DJI Matrice 300 RTK UAV in the coastal zone at the public beach in Gdynia (Poland) in 2023. In addition, the coastline course was marked out using high-resolution satellite imagery (0.3\u20130.5 m). In order to calculate the accuracy of determining the shoreline by photogrammetric and satellite methods, it was decided to relate them to the coastline marked out using a Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) Real Time Kinematic (RTK) receiver with an accuracy of 2.4 cm Distance Root Mean Square (DRMS). Studies have shown that accuracies of determining coastline course using a UAV are 0.47 m (p = 0.95) for the orthophotomosaic method and 0.70 m (p = 0.95) for the Digital Surface Model (DSM), and are much more accurate than the satellite method, which amounted to 6.37 m (p = 0.95) for the Pl\u00e9iades Neo satellite and 9.24 m (p = 0.95) for the Hexagon Europe satellite. Based on the obtained test results, it can be stated that the photogrammetric method using a UAV meets the accuracy requirements laid down for the most stringent International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) order, i.e., Exclusive Order (Total Horizontal Uncertainty (THU) of 5 m with a confidence level of 95%), which they relate to coastline measurements.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs15194700","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,26]],"date-time":"2023-09-26T02:31:29Z","timestamp":1695695489000},"page":"4700","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Method for Determining Coastline Course Based on Low-Altitude Images Taken by a UAV"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1692-9175","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"\u0141ukasz","family":"Marchel","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Navigation and Hydrography, Polish Naval Academy, \u015amidowicza 69, 81-127 Gdynia, Poland"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6026-306X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mariusz","family":"Specht","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Transport and Logistics, Gdynia Maritime University, Morska 81-87, 81-225 Gdynia, Poland"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, Z., Zhai, J., and Wu, F. (2018). Shape Similarity Assessment Method for Coastline Generalization. ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf., 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi7070283"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sui, L., Wang, J., Yang, X., and Wang, Z. (2020). Spatial-temporal Characteristics of Coastline Changes in Indonesia from 1990 to 2018. Sustainability, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/su12083242"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, J., Ye, M., Pu, R., Liu, Y., Guo, Q., Feng, B., Huang, R., and He, G. (2018). Spatiotemporal Change Patterns of Coastlines in Zhejiang Province, China, Over the Last Twenty-five Years. Sustainability, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/su10020477"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ocecoaman.2017.07.011","article-title":"Coastal Erosion in Central Chile: A New Hazard?","volume":"156","author":"Winckler","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ocean Coast. Manag."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104845","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ocecoaman.2019.104845","article-title":"Multicriteria GIS-based Estimation of Coastal Erosion Risk: Implementation to Aveiro Sandy Coast, Portugal","volume":"178","author":"Narra","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ocean Coast. Manag."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kanwal, S., Ding, X., Sajjad, M., and Abbas, S. (2020). Three Decades of Coastal Changes in Sindh, Pakistan (1989-2018): A Geospatial Assessment. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12010008"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, Y., and Hou, X. (2020). Characteristics of Coastline Changes on Southeast Asia Islands from 2000 to 2015. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12030519"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mury, A., Jeanson, M., Collin, A., James, D., and Etienne, S. (2019). High Resolution Shoreline and Shelly Ridge Monitoring over Stormy Winter Events: A Case Study in the Megatidal Bay of Mont-Saint-Michel (France). J. Mar. Sci. Eng., 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/jmse7040097"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nikolakopoulos, K., Kyriou, A., Koukouvelas, I., Zygouri, V., and Apostolopoulos, D. (2019). Combination of Aerial, Satellite, and UAV Photogrammetry for Mapping the Diachronic Coastline Evolution: The Case of Lefkada Island. ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi8110489"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fu, Y., Guo, Q., Wu, X., Fang, H., and Pan, Y. (2017). Analysis and Prediction of Changes in Coastline Morphology in the Bohai Sea, China, Using Remote Sensing. Sustainability, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/su9060900"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mahamud, U., and Takewaka, S. (2018). Shoreline Change around a River Delta on the Cox\u2019s Bazar Coast of Bangladesh. J. Mar. Sci. Eng., 6.","DOI":"10.3390\/jmse6030080"},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"102711","article-title":"Temporal and Spatial Variation of Coastline Using Remote Sensing Images for Zhoushan Archipelago, China","volume":"107","author":"Chen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2011.07.027","article-title":"Historical Changes in the Shoreline and Littoral Processes on a Headland Bay Beach in Central Chile","volume":"135","author":"Quezada","year":"2011","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"166","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jseaes.2013.01.002","article-title":"Temporal and Spatial Changes in Coastline Movement of the Yangtze Delta during 1974-2010","volume":"66","author":"Chu","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Asian Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1516","DOI":"10.3390\/rs3071516","article-title":"Shoreline Change along Sheltered Coastlines: Insights from the Neuse River Estuary, NC, USA","volume":"3","author":"Cowart","year":"2011","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e7520","DOI":"10.7717\/peerj.7520","article-title":"Expanding Walls and Shrinking Beaches: Loss of Natural Coastline in Okinawa Island, Japan","volume":"7","author":"Masucci","year":"2019","journal-title":"PeerJ"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lowe, M.K., Adnan, F.A.F., Hamylton, S.M., Carvalho, R.C., and Woodroffe, C.D. (2019). Assessing Reef-island Shoreline Change Using UAV-derived Orthomosaics and Digital Surface Models. Drones, 3.","DOI":"10.3390\/drones3020044"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1141","DOI":"10.1016\/j.oceaneng.2011.05.006","article-title":"Automatic Detection of Shoreline Change on Coastal Ramsar Wetlands of Turkey","volume":"38","author":"Kuleli","year":"2011","journal-title":"Ocean Eng."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9930","DOI":"10.3390\/rs6109930","article-title":"Evaluation of Coastline Changes under Human Intervention Using Multi-temporal High-resolution Images: A Case Study of the Zhoushan Islands, China","volume":"6","author":"Zhang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"344","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1526-100X.2012.00908.x","article-title":"Assessing Habitat Suitability for Juvenile Atlantic Salmon in Relation to In-stream Restoration and Discharge Variability","volume":"21","author":"Koljonen","year":"2012","journal-title":"Restor. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"349","DOI":"10.1002\/esp.3290190406","article-title":"Developments in Monitoring and Modelling Small-scale River Bed Topography","volume":"19","author":"Lane","year":"1994","journal-title":"Earth Surf. Process. Landf."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1516","DOI":"10.2112\/07-0861.1","article-title":"Monitoring Sandy Shores Morphologies by DGPS\u2014A Practical Tool to Generate Digital Elevation Models","volume":"24","author":"Baptista","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Coast. Res."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"925","DOI":"10.2112\/JCOASTRES-D-18-00166.1","article-title":"A New Method for Determining the Territorial Sea Baseline Using an Unmanned, Hydrographic Surface Vessel","volume":"35","author":"Specht","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Coast. Res."},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"1245","article-title":"Coastline Extraction Using Satellite Imagery and Image Processing Techniques","volume":"6","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Curr. Eng. Technol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, X., Liu, Y., Ling, F., Liu, Y., and Fang, F. (2017). Spatio-temporal Change Detection of Ningbo Coastline Using Landsat Time-series Images during 1976\u20132015. ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf., 6.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi6030068"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"685","DOI":"10.5721\/EuJRS20144739","article-title":"Coastline Extraction Using High Resolution WorldView-2 Satellite Imagery","volume":"47","author":"Maglione","year":"2014","journal-title":"Eur. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1016\/j.margeo.2015.12.015","article-title":"Evaluation of Annual Mean Shoreline Position Deduced from Landsat Imagery as a Mid-term Coastal Evolution Indicator","volume":"372","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mar. Geol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Via\u00f1a-Borja, S.P., and Ortega-S\u00e1nchez, M. (2019). Automatic Methodology to Detect the Coastline from Landsat Images with a New Water Index Assessed on Three Different Spanish Mediterranean Deltas. Remote Sens., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11182186"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2005.08.006","article-title":"Land Cover Classification and Change Analysis of the Twin Cities (Minnesota) Metropolitan Area by Multitemporal Landsat Remote Sensing","volume":"98","author":"Yuan","year":"2005","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.15576\/ASP.FC\/2023.22.2.02","article-title":"Geodata in Science\u2014A Review of Selected Scientific Fields","volume":"22","author":"Apollo","year":"2023","journal-title":"Acta Sci. Pol. Form. Circumiectus"},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Bayram, B., Seker, D.Z., and Akpinar, B. (2019, January 14\u201318). Efficiency of Different Machine Learning Methods for Shoreline Extraction from UAV Images. Proceedings of the 40th Asian Conference on Remote Sensing (ACRS 2019), Daejeon, Republic of Korea."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Del Pizzo, S., Angrisano, A., Gaglione, S., and Troisi, S. (2020, January 5\u20137). Assessment of Shoreline Detection Using UAV. Proceedings of the 2020 IMEKO TC-19 International Workshop on Metrology for the Sea (MetroSea 2020), Naples, Italy."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang, C., Zhang, H., and Zhao, J. (2020). High-efficiency Determination of Coastline by Combination of Tidal Level and Coastal Zone DEM from UAV Tilt Photogrammetry. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12142189"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3263","DOI":"10.1007\/s00024-017-1707-7","article-title":"Application of Low-cost Fixed-wing UAV for Inland Lakes Shoreline Investigation","volume":"175","author":"Templin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Pure Appl. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.1515\/jwld-2017-0092","article-title":"The Use of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (Drones) to Determine the Shoreline of Natural Watercourses","volume":"35","author":"Wilkowski","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Water Land Dev."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"IHO (2020). IHO Standards for Hydrographic Surveys, IHO. [6th ed.]. IHO Publication No. 44."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Specht, M., Specht, C., W\u0105\u017c, M., D\u0105browski, P., Sk\u00f3ra, M., and Marchel, \u0141. (2019). Determining the Variability of the Territorial Sea Baseline on the Example of Waterbody Adjacent to the Municipal Beach in Gdynia. Appl. Sci., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/app9183867"},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"Maritime Office in Gdynia (2023, August 06). Draft Plan for the Spatial Development of Water of the Sea Port in Gdynia, Preliminary Draft Plan Version (v.0), (In Polish)."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"Maritime Office in Gdynia (2023, August 06). Draft Plan for the Spatial Development of Internal Waters of the Gulf of Gda\u0144sk Together with an Environmental Impact Forecast, (In Polish)."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"526","DOI":"10.1134\/S0001437013050123","article-title":"Tidal Oscillations in the Baltic Sea","volume":"53","author":"Medvedev","year":"2013","journal-title":"Oceanology"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Specht, M., Specht, C., W\u0105\u017c, M., Naus, K., Grz\u0105dziel, A., and Iwen, D. (2019). Methodology for Performing Territorial Sea Baseline Measurements in Selected Waterbodies of Poland. Appl. Sci., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/app9153053"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"282","DOI":"10.1007\/s11806-011-0551-7","article-title":"A Shoreline Change Analysis along the Coast between Kanyakumari and Tuticorin, India, Using Digital Shoreline Analysis System","volume":"14","author":"Mujabar","year":"2011","journal-title":"Geo-Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"USGS (2023, August 06). Digital Shoreline Analysis System (DSAS), Available online: https:\/\/www.usgs.gov\/centers\/whcmsc\/science\/digital-shoreline-analysis-system-dsas."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130","DOI":"10.5604\/05096669.1205269","article-title":"Execution of Photo Mission by Manned Aircraft and Unmanned Aerial Vehicle","volume":"2","author":"Kacprzak","year":"2016","journal-title":"Trans. Inst. Aviat."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.12657\/landfana.024.012","article-title":"Possibilities of Using Unmanned Air Photogrammetry to Identify Anthropogenic Transformations in River Channel","volume":"24","author":"Witek","year":"2013","journal-title":"Landf. Anal."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Specht, M., Specht, C., Lewicka, O., Makar, A., Burdziakowski, P., and D\u0105browski, P. (2020). Study on the Coastline Evolution in Sopot (2008\u20132018) Based on Landsat Satellite Imagery. J. Mar. Sci. Eng., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/jmse8060464"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Farris, A.S., Weber, K.M., Doran, K.S., and List, J.H. (2023, August 06). Comparing Methods Used by the U.S. Geological Survey Coastal and Marine Geology Program for Deriving Shoreline Position from LiDAR Data, Available online: https:\/\/pubs.usgs.gov\/of\/2018\/1121\/ofr20181121.pdf.","DOI":"10.3133\/ofr20181121"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"496","DOI":"10.1080\/2150704X.2019.1569277","article-title":"A New Method for Shoreline Extraction from Airborne LiDAR Point Clouds","volume":"10","author":"Xu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Lett."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/15\/19\/4700\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T20:58:00Z","timestamp":1760129880000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/15\/19\/4700"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,25]]},"references-count":48,"journal-issue":{"issue":"19","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,10]]}},"alternative-id":["rs15194700"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs15194700","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2072-4292"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,25]]}}}