{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T21:46:10Z","timestamp":1760132770554,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":90,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"19","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,27]],"date-time":"2023-09-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1695772800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Shanghai Surveying and Mapping Institute","award":["41471375"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41471375"]}]},{"name":"China\u2019s Natural Science Foundation","award":["41471375"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41471375"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Remote-sensing images of high spatial resolution (HSR) are valuable sources of fine-grained spatial information for various applications, such as urban surveys and governance. There is continuing research on positional errors in remote-sensing images and their impacts in geoprocessing and applications. This paper explores the combined use of multi-point geostatistics (MPS), machine learning\u2014in particular, generalized additive modeling (GAM)\u2014and computer-image correlation for characterizing positional errors in images\u2014in particular, HSR images. These methods are employed because of the merits of MPS in being flexible for non-parametric and joint simulation of positional errors in X and Y coordinates, the merits of GAM in being capable of handling non-stationarity in-positional errors through error de-trending, and the merits of computer-image correlation in being cost-effective in furnishing the training data (TD) required in MPS. Procedurally, image correlation is applied to identify homologous image points in reference-test image pairs to extract image displacements automatically in constructing TD. To cope with the complexity of urban scenes and the unavailability of truly orthorectified images, visual screening is performed to clean the raw displacement data to create quality-enhanced TD, while manual digitization is used to obtain reference sample data, including conditioning data (CD), for MPS and test data for performance evaluation. GAM is used to decompose CD and TD into trends and residuals. With CD and TD both de-trended, the direct sampling (DS) algorithm for MPS is applied to simulate residuals over a simulation grid (SG) at 80 m spatial resolution. With the realizations of residuals and, hence, positional errors generated in this way, the means, standard deviation, and cross correlation in bivariate positional errors at SG nodes are computed. The simulated error fields are also used to generate equal-probable realizations of vertices that define some road centerlines (RCLs), selected for this research through interpolation over the aforementioned simulated error fields, leading to error metrics for the RCLs and for the lengths of some RCL segments. The enhanced georectification of the RCLs is facilitated through error correction. A case study based in Shanghai municipality, China, was carried out, using HSR images as part of generalized point clouds that were developed. The experiment results confirmed that by using the proposed methods, spatially explicit positional-error metrics, including means, standard deviation, and cross correlation, can be quantified flexibly, with those in the selected RCLs and the lengths of some RCL segments derived easily through error propagation. The reference positions of these RCLs were obtained through error correction. The positional accuracy gains achieved by the proposed methods were found to be comparable with those achieved by conventional image georectification, in which the CD were used as image-georectification control data. The proposed methods are valuable not only for uncertainty-informed image geolocation and analysis, but also for integrated geoinformation processing.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs15194734","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,28]],"date-time":"2023-09-28T01:51:14Z","timestamp":1695865874000},"page":"4734","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Integrating Multi-Point Geostatistics, Machine Learning, and Image Correlation for Characterizing Positional Errors in Remote-Sensing Images of High Spatial Resolution"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Liang","family":"Xin","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Shanghai Surveying and Mapping Institute, Shanghai 200063, China"},{"name":"Department of Surveying and Geo-Informatics, Tongji University, 1239 Siping Road, Yangpu, Shanghai 200092, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9769-4277","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Wangle","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Geological Engineering and Geomatics, Chang\u2019an University, Xi\u2019an 710054, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jianxu","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Geodesy and Geomatics, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430079, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Sijian","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Shanghai Surveying and Mapping Institute, Shanghai 200063, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jingxiong","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Geodesy and Geomatics, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430079, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"375","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1025167225797","article-title":"Spatial Error Propagation When Computing Linear Combinations of Spectral Bands: The Case of Vegetation Indices","volume":"10","author":"Arbia","year":"2003","journal-title":"Environ. Ecol. Stat."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envsoft.2012.02.008","article-title":"Managing Uncertainty in Integrated Environmental Modelling: The UncertWeb Framework","volume":"39","author":"Bastin","year":"2013","journal-title":"Environ. Model. Softw."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2269","DOI":"10.1080\/13658816.2015.1073292","article-title":"Propagation of Positional Error in 3D GIS: Estimation of the Solar Irradiation of Building Roofs","volume":"29","author":"Biljecki","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Geogr. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"172","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cageo.2006.06.015","article-title":"The Data Uncertainty Engine (DUE): A Software Tool for Assessing and Simulating Uncertain Environmental Variables","volume":"33","author":"Brown","year":"2007","journal-title":"Comput. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"282","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compenvurbsys.2006.07.005","article-title":"Simulating Error Propagation in Land-Cover Change Analysis: The Implications of Temporal Dependence","volume":"31","author":"Burnicki","year":"2007","journal-title":"Comput. Environ. Urban Syst."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Goodchild, M.F. (2008, January 25\u201327). Spatial Accuracy 2.0. Proceedings of the Spatial Uncertainty: Proceedings of the eighth International Symposium on Spatial Accuracy Assessment in Natural Resources and Environmental Sciences, Shanghai, China."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1016\/S0016-7061(01)00067-2","article-title":"Geostatistical Modelling of Uncertainty in Soil Science","volume":"103","author":"Goovaerts","year":"2001","journal-title":"Geoderma"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2277","DOI":"10.1080\/13658816.2012.719625","article-title":"Spatial Data Quality and Beyond","volume":"26","author":"Li","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Geogr. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1080\/1365881022000016007","article-title":"Modelling Error Propagation in Vector-Based Buffer Analysis","volume":"17","author":"Shi","year":"2003","journal-title":"Int. J. Geogr. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, J., and Goodchild, M.F. (2002). Uncertainty in Geographical Information, CRC Press. [1st ed.].","DOI":"10.1201\/b12624"},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"241","article-title":"Effects of Point Error on Area Calculations: A Statistical Model","volume":"48","author":"Chrisman","year":"1988","journal-title":"Surv. Mapp."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compag.2008.03.005","article-title":"Propagation of Positional Measurement Errors to Agricultural Field Boundaries and Associated Costs","volume":"63","author":"Heuvelink","year":"2008","journal-title":"Comput. Electron. Agric."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"719","DOI":"10.1080\/13658810701694838","article-title":"Assessment of Sliver Polygons in Geographical Vector Data","volume":"23","author":"Delafontaine","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. J. Geogr. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.1080\/00396265.2015.1113027","article-title":"Models for Positional Accuracy Assessment of Linear Features: 2D and 3D Cases","volume":"48","year":"2016","journal-title":"Surv. Rev."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1067","DOI":"10.1080\/13658810701851420","article-title":"Georeferencing Locality Descriptions and Computing Associated Uncertainty Using a Probabilistic Approach","volume":"22","author":"Guo","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. J. Geogr. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/1476-072X-6-1","article-title":"Modeling the Probability Distribution of Positional Errors Incurred by Residential Address Geocoding","volume":"6","author":"Zimmerman","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int. J. Health Geogr."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.22389\/0016-7126-2018-933-3-35-45","article-title":"The Experiment on Assessment of Point Position Accuracy at the Manual Digitizing of a Raster Map","volume":"933","author":"Kharchenko","year":"2018","journal-title":"Geod. Cartogr."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1749","DOI":"10.1080\/13658816.2010.518317","article-title":"Beyond the Epsilon Band: Polygonal Modeling of Gradation\/Uncertainty in Area-Class Maps","volume":"25","author":"Kronenfeld","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Geogr. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"403","DOI":"10.1007\/s10109-004-0144-1","article-title":"A General Framework for Error Analysis in Measurement-Based GIS Part 4: Error Analysis in Length and Area Measurements","volume":"6","author":"Leung","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Geogr. Syst."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"607","DOI":"10.1080\/136588198241699","article-title":"A Locational Error Model for Spatial Features","volume":"12","author":"Leung","year":"1998","journal-title":"Int. J. Geogr. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autcon.2015.03.011","article-title":"Uncertainty-Aware Geospatial System for Mapping and Visualizing Underground Utilities","volume":"53","author":"Li","year":"2015","journal-title":"Autom. Constr."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1080\/15230406.2014.912153","article-title":"Detection of Systematic Displacements in Spatial Databases Using Linear Elements","volume":"41","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cartogr. Geogr. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"473","DOI":"10.1080\/13658810110047221","article-title":"On the Accuracy of TIGER-Type Geocoded Address Data in Relation to Cadastral and Census Areal Units","volume":"15","author":"Ratcliffe","year":"2001","journal-title":"Int. J. Geogr. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1503","DOI":"10.1080\/13658810802231456","article-title":"Quality Assessment of Linear Data","volume":"23","author":"Seo","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. J. Geogr. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"136","article-title":"A Statistical Simulation Model for Positional Error of Line Features in Geographic Information Systems (GIS)","volume":"21","author":"Tong","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3906","DOI":"10.1080\/01431161.2017.1303218","article-title":"Accounting for Positional Uncertainty in Historical Shoreline Change Analysis without Ground Reference Information","volume":"38","author":"Wernette","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/2963147","article-title":"A Survey of Measures and Methods for Matching Geospatial Vector Datasets","volume":"49","author":"Xavier","year":"2016","journal-title":"ACM Comput. Surv."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1080\/10106049.2010.537374","article-title":"Influence of Street Reference Data on Geocoding Quality","volume":"26","author":"Zandbergen","year":"2011","journal-title":"Geocarto Int."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1080\/19479832.2019.1641164","article-title":"Effectiveness of Geometric Quality Control Using a Distance Evaluation Method","volume":"10","author":"Zelasco","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Image Data Fusion"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1807","DOI":"10.1080\/13658816.2019.1606430","article-title":"Analysis of Positional Uncertainty of Road Networks in Volunteered Geographic Information with a Statistically Defined Buffer-Zone Method","volume":"33","author":"Zhang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Geogr. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3119","DOI":"10.1111\/tgis.12809","article-title":"A Note on the Propagation of Positional Uncertainty in Environmental Models","volume":"25","author":"Osei","year":"2021","journal-title":"Trans. GIS"},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"556","article-title":"Scene Cognition Pattern of Point Cloud-Generalization Point Cloud","volume":"51","author":"Liu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cehui Xuebao\/Acta Geod. Cartogr. Sin."},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"427","article-title":"Assessing Geometric Accuracy of the Orthorectification Process from GeoEye-1 and WorldView-2 Panchromatic Images","volume":"21","author":"Aguilar","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2972","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2011.2122337","article-title":"Geolocation Assessment of MERIS GlobCover Orthorectified Products","volume":"49","author":"Bicheron","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Han, Y., and Oh, J. (2018). Automated Geo\/Co-Registration of Multi-Temporal Very-High-Resolution Imagery. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18051599"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4549","DOI":"10.3390\/rs70404549","article-title":"Geo-Positioning Accuracy Using Multiple-Satellite Images: IKONOS, QuickBird, and KOMPSAT-2 Stereo Images","volume":"7","author":"Jeong","year":"2015","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Loghin, A.-M., Otepka-Schremmer, J., Ressl, C., and Pfeifer, N. (2022). Improvement of VHR Satellite Image Geometry with High Resolution Elevation Models. Remote Sens., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14102303"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"545","DOI":"10.1007\/s12518-022-00449-9","article-title":"Positional Accuracy Assessment of Historical Google Earth Imagery in Lagos State, Nigeria","volume":"14","author":"Nwilo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Appl. Geomat."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"342","DOI":"10.1080\/17538947.2015.1031716","article-title":"Horizontal Accuracy Assessment of Very High Resolution Google Earth Images in the City of Rome, Italy","volume":"9","author":"Pulighe","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Digit. Earth"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rizeei, H.M., and Pradhan, B. (2019). Urban Mapping Accuracy Enhancement in High-Rise Built-Up Areas Deployed by 3D-Orthorectification Correction from WorldView-3 and LiDAR Imageries. Remote Sens., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11060692"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"S\u00e1nchez, M., Cuartero, A., Barrena, M., and Plaza, A. (2020). A New Method for Positional Accuracy Analysis in Georeferenced Satellite Images without Independent Ground Control Points. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12244132"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Song, A., Kim, Y., and Han, Y. (2020). Uncertainty Analysis for Object-Based Change Detection in Very High-Resolution Satellite Images Using Deep Learning Network. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12152345"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/10106049.2018.1493157","article-title":"Modelling the Orthoimage Accuracy Using DEM Accuracy and Off-Nadir Angle","volume":"35","author":"Yilmaz","year":"2020","journal-title":"Geocarto Int."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compenvurbsys.2012.06.006","article-title":"Application of Random Sets to Model Uncertainty of Road Polygons Extracted from Airborne Laser Points","volume":"41","author":"Zhou","year":"2013","journal-title":"Comput. Environ. Urban Syst."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2857","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160600981533","article-title":"Modelling Geometric and Misregistration Error in Airborne Sensor Data to Enhance Change Detection","volume":"28","author":"Brown","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2021.3128776","article-title":"Error Propagation in Satellite Multi-Image Geometry","volume":"60","author":"Mundy","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1566","DOI":"10.1109\/36.718860","article-title":"The Effects of Image Misregistration on the Accuracy of Remotely Sensed Change Detection","volume":"36","author":"Dai","year":"1998","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2289","DOI":"10.1111\/2041-210X.13956","article-title":"Positional Errors in Species Distribution Modelling Are Not Overcome by the Coarser Grains of Analysis","volume":"13","author":"Jetz","year":"2022","journal-title":"Methods Ecol. Evol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"789","DOI":"10.14358\/PERS.82.10.789","article-title":"Modeling the Effects of Horizontal Positional Error on Classification Accuracy Statistics","volume":"82","author":"Glick","year":"2016","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"579","DOI":"10.3390\/rs70100579","article-title":"The Impact of Positional Errors on Soft Classification Accuracy Assessment: A Simulation Analysis","volume":"7","author":"Gu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1710","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2010.03.001","article-title":"The Effects of Rectification and Global Positioning System Errors on Satellite Image-Based Estimates of Forest Area","volume":"114","author":"McRoberts","year":"2010","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1111\/1467-9671.00044","article-title":"A Geostatistical Approach to Modelling Positional Errors in Vector Data","volume":"4","author":"Zhang","year":"2000","journal-title":"Trans. GIS"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mariethoz, G., and Caers, J. (2014). Multiple-Point Geostatistics: Stochastic Modeling with Training Images, Wiley-Blackwell.","DOI":"10.1002\/9781118662953"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1007\/s11004-019-09818-4","article-title":"Downscaling Images with Trends Using Multiple-Point Statistics Simulation: An Application to Digital Elevation Models","volume":"52","author":"Rasera","year":"2020","journal-title":"Math. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1007\/s11004-013-9479-9","article-title":"Addressing Conditioning Data in Multiple-Point Statistics Simulation Algorithms Based on a Multiple Grid Approach","volume":"46","author":"Straubhaar","year":"2014","journal-title":"Math. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1477","DOI":"10.5194\/gmd-15-1477-2022","article-title":"Mapping High-Resolution Basal Topography of West Antarctica from Radar Data Using Non-Stationary Multiple-Point Geostatistics (MPS-BedMappingV1)","volume":"15","author":"Yin","year":"2022","journal-title":"Geosci. Model Dev."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112381","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2021.112381","article-title":"A Review of Geostatistical Simulation Models Applied to Satellite Remote Sensing: Methods and Applications","volume":"259","author":"Zakeri","year":"2021","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9515170","DOI":"10.1029\/2008WR007621","article-title":"The Direct Sampling Method to Perform Multiple-Point Geostatistical Simulations","volume":"46","author":"Mariethoz","year":"2010","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.1007\/s11004-010-9270-0","article-title":"Reconstruction of Incomplete Data Sets or Images Using Direct Sampling","volume":"42","author":"Mariethoz","year":"2010","journal-title":"Math. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2611","DOI":"10.5194\/gmd-13-2611-2020","article-title":"QuickSampling v1.0: A Robust and Simplified Pixel-Based Multiple-Point Simulation Approach","volume":"13","author":"Gravey","year":"2020","journal-title":"Geosci. Model Dev."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"174","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2017.10.007","article-title":"Nonlinear Bias Compensation of ZiYuan-3 Satellite Imagery with Cubic Splines","volume":"133","author":"Cao","year":"2017","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1148","DOI":"10.1109\/LGRS.2013.2288360","article-title":"Combined Efficiency of RPC and DEM Accuracy on Georeferencing Accuracy of Orthoimage: Case Study with Pl\u00e9iades Panchromatic Mono Image","volume":"11","author":"Topan","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1567","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2010.2083672","article-title":"Effect of DEM Uncertainty on the Positional Accuracy of Airborne Imagery","volume":"49","author":"Beekhuizen","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"160","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2005.12.003","article-title":"Accuracy Analysis for DSM and Orthoimages Derived from SPOT HRS Stereo Data Using Direct Georeferencing","volume":"60","author":"Reinartz","year":"2006","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2017.01.007","article-title":"Correcting Bias in the Rational Polynomial Coefficients of Satellite Imagery Using Thin-Plate Smoothing Splines","volume":"125","author":"Shen","year":"2017","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_66","first-page":"146","article-title":"Kriging and Thin Plate Splines for Mapping Climate Variables","volume":"3","author":"Boer","year":"2001","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"410","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2013.11.022","article-title":"On Using Smoothing Spline and Residual Correction to Fuse Rain Gauge Observations and Remote Sensing Data","volume":"508","author":"Huang","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.1080\/02693799508902045","article-title":"Interpolating Mean Rainfall Using Thin Plate Smoothing Splines","volume":"9","author":"Hutchinson","year":"1995","journal-title":"Int. J. Geogr. Inf. Syst."},{"key":"ref_69","first-page":"100844","article-title":"Geometric Accuracy Assessment and a Framework for Automatic Sub-Pixel Registration of WFI Images from CBERS-4, CBERS-4A, and Amazonia-1 Satellites over Brazil","volume":"28","author":"Oldoni","year":"2022","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Appl. Soc. Environ."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112181","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2020.112181","article-title":"Improving Landsat Multispectral Scanner (MSS) Geolocation by Least-Squares-Adjustment Based Time-Series Co-Registration","volume":"252","author":"Yan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"977","DOI":"10.1016\/S0262-8856(03)00137-9","article-title":"Image Registration Methods: A Survey","volume":"21","author":"Flusser","year":"2003","journal-title":"Image Vis. Comput."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wood, S. (2017). Generalized Additive Models: An Introduction with R, Chapman and Hall\/CRC. [2nd ed.].","DOI":"10.1201\/9781315370279"},{"key":"ref_73","unstructured":"Wood, S. (2022). R Package Version, R Foundation for Statistical Computing."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113038","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2022.113038","article-title":"A New Approach for 2-D and 3-D Precise Measurements of Ground Deformation from Optimized Registration and Correlation of Optical Images and ICA-Based Filtering of Image Geometry Artifacts","volume":"277","author":"Aati","year":"2022","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"551","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2009.03.005","article-title":"Co-Registration and Correlation of Aerial Photographs for Ground Deformation Measurements","volume":"64","author":"Ayoub","year":"2009","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1529","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2006.888937","article-title":"Automatic and Precise Orthorectification, Coregistration, and Subpixel Correlation of Satellite Images, Application to Ground Deformation Measurements","volume":"45","author":"Leprince","year":"2007","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1157","DOI":"10.14358\/PERS.77.11.1157","article-title":"Automatic Georeferencing of Aerial Images Using Stereo High-Resolution Satellite Images","volume":"77","author":"Oh","year":"2011","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1186\/s40965-017-0027-2","article-title":"MicMac\u2014A Free, Open-Source Solution for Photogrammetry","volume":"2","author":"Rupnik","year":"2017","journal-title":"Open Geospatial Data, Softw. Stand."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2576","DOI":"10.1080\/01431161.2018.1528402","article-title":"High-Resolution Image Registration Based on Improved SURF Detector and Localized GTM","volume":"40","author":"Sedaghat","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2016.11.007","article-title":"Correlation of Satellite Image Time-Series for the Detection and Monitoring of Slow-Moving Landslides","volume":"189","author":"Stumpf","year":"2017","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3733","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTARS.2021.3067457","article-title":"Robust Automatic Generation of True Orthoimages from Very High-Resolution Panchromatic Satellite Imagery Based on Image Incidence Angle for Occlusion Detection","volume":"14","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Appl. Earth Obs. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1080\/15481603.2015.1128629","article-title":"True Orthoimage Generation by Mutual Recovery of Occlusion Areas","volume":"53","author":"Yoo","year":"2016","journal-title":"GISci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"489","DOI":"10.1007\/s11004-005-9020-x","article-title":"Theoretical Estimation of the Critical Sampling Size for Homogeneous Ore Bodies with Small Nugget Effect","volume":"38","author":"Modis","year":"2006","journal-title":"Math. Geol."},{"key":"ref_84","first-page":"865","article-title":"Combining Location and Classification Error Sources for Estimating Mult-Temporal Database Accuracy","volume":"67","author":"Carmel","year":"2001","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7383","DOI":"10.1080\/01431161.2020.1759840","article-title":"The Impact of Horizontal Errors on the Accuracy of Freely Available Digital Elevation Models (DEMs)","volume":"41","author":"Guan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1080\/19475683.2015.1085438","article-title":"An Optimization Technique for Addressing DEM Misregistration in Hilly Terrain","volume":"22","author":"Li","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ann. GIS"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"473","DOI":"10.1080\/13658816.2010.517752","article-title":"Components of Uncertainty in Primary Production Model: The Study of DEM, Classification and Location Error","volume":"25","author":"Livne","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Geogr. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"619","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-9671.2005.00238.x","article-title":"Change Estimates by Map Comparison: A Method to Reduce Erroneous Changes Due to Positional Error","volume":"9","author":"Mas","year":"2005","journal-title":"Trans. GIS"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mi, J., Liu, L., Zhang, X., Chen, X., Gao, Y., and Xie, S. (2022). Impact of Geometric Misregistration in GlobeLand30 on Land-Cover Change Analysis, a Case Study in China. J. Appl. Remote Sens., 16.","DOI":"10.1117\/1.JRS.16.014516"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.5194\/essd-13-119-2021","article-title":"Fine-Grained, Spatiotemporal Datasets Measuring 200 Years of Land Development in the United States","volume":"13","author":"Uhl","year":"2021","journal-title":"Earth Syst. Sci. Data"}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/15\/19\/4734\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T20:59:56Z","timestamp":1760129996000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/15\/19\/4734"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,27]]},"references-count":90,"journal-issue":{"issue":"19","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,10]]}},"alternative-id":["rs15194734"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs15194734","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2072-4292"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,27]]}}}